The role of psychological detachment. Remote work and productivity

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Research Objectives
1.3.1 General Objective
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Scope of the Study
1.7 Brief Overview of Research Methodology
1.8 Limitations to the study
1.9 Organization of the study

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conceptual Review
2.2.1 Concept of Productivity
2.2.2 Concept of Remote Working
2.2.3 The Positive Organizational Impact of Remote Worker
2.2.4 The Negative Organizational Impact of Remote Worker
2.2.5 Concept of Psychological Detachment
2.3 Theoretical Review
2.3.1 The Stressor-Detachment model
2.3.2 Socio-technical systems theory
2.4 Empirical Review and Hypothesis Development
2.4.1 The relationship between Remote Work and Work Productivity
2.4.2 The relationship between Remote Working and Psychological Detachment
2.4.3 The relationship between Psychological Detachment and Work Productivity
2.4.4 Psychological detachment mediating the relationship between remote working and work productivity
2.5 Conceptual Framework
2.6 The context of the study
2.7 Conclusion

CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONAL PROFILE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Design
3.2.1 Research Purpose
3.3 Population
3.4 Sampling Size and Sampling Technique
3.4.1 Sampling Technique
3.4.2 Sample Size
3.5 Sources of Data
3.5.1 Primary Data
3.6 Data Collection
3.6.1 Questionnaire
3.7 Measures
3.8 Data Reliability and Validity
3.9 Ethics
3.10 Organisational Profile
3.10.1 Local Government Service
3.10.2 Local Government Service Vision
3.10.3 Local Government Service Mission
3.10.4 Local Government Service (Services)
3.11 Case Selection
3.12 Conclusion

CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Profile of respondents
4.3 Measurement of Issues
4.3.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
4.3.2 Goodness of Fit Indices
4.3.3 Reliability Test
4.3.4 Correlation Table
4.4 Description result on Remote Work, Psychological Detachment and Productivity
4.4.1 Remote Work
4.4.2 Productivity
4.4.2 Psychological Detachment
4.5 Hypothesis Testing
4.5.1 Effect of Psychological detachment on Productivity
4.5.2 The impact of Remote work on Productivity
4.5.3 The relationship between of Remote work and psychological detachment
4.5.4 Mediating role of psychological detachment on the relationship between remote work and productivity
4.6 Discussion of results

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary of the Main Findings
5.2.1 Impact of psychological detachment on productivity
5.2.2 Relationship between remote work and productivity
5.2.3 Relationship between remote work and psychological detachment
5.2.4 Mediating role of psychological detachment in the relationship between remote work and productivity
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Recommendations
5.3.1 Remote work in MMDAs
5.3.2 ICT utilization in MMDAs
5.3.3 Directions for further studies

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

APPENDIX:

Acknowledgment

First of all, I wish to express my profound gratitude to the Almighty God for His guidance and protection throughout this academic journey and for seeing me through the successful completion of this thesis.

I wish to express my profound gratitude to Dr. Felicity Asiedu-Appiah, my supervisor and Lecturer who painstakingly found time and attention to guide me throughout my thesis with her constructive criticisms, corrections and suggestions which contributed to the success of this research.

I also extend deepest gratitude to all the lecturers of the Department, especially those who imparted various theoretical and research skills on me during my postgraduate education.

The author wishes to express his profound gratitude to the employees of selected Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assembly for their respective approval and voluntary participation in the study.

ABSTRACT

Remote work appears to have contributed in the overall extension of work hours, allowing people to work longer hours and or employers to expand or intensify labor demands. In this study, the researcher examined the mediating role of psychological detachment in the relationship between remote work and productivity. A quantitative research methodology was adopted in this study using the systematic sampling techniques to select a sample of 229 employees whom data were collected from using structured questionnaires. Data collected from the field with the aid of the questionnaire was analyzed using statistical techniques embedded in the SPSS version 22.0. These technipues included correlation, regression and descriptive statistics. Findings of this study indicated that; remote work significantly and positively predicts productivity, psychological detachment negatively and insignificantly predicts productivity and psychological detachment negatively mediates the relationship between remote work and productivity. It was therefore recommended that there is the need to emphasize the practice of remote work to enhance productivity of various MMDAs and there should be training and development programs on ICT Working Tools for workers at various MMDAs and other organisation as a whole who are working remotely.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Socio-demographic Details of Respondents

Table 2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Table 3. Goodness of Fit Indices

Table 4. Reliability test

Table 5. Correlation Analysis between Remote Work, Psychological Detachment and Productivity

Table 6. Descriptive Analysis of Remote Work

Table 7. Descriptive Analysis of Productivity

Table 8. Descriptive Analysis of Psychological detachment

Table 9. Regression Analysis of the Effect of psychological detachment on productivity

Table 10. Regression Analysis of the Effect of Remote work on productivity

Table 11. Regression Analysis of the Effect of Remote work on psychological detachment

Table 12. The linear regression effect of remote work on psychological detachment, psychological detachment and productivity and remote work and productivity

Table 13. Mediating role of psychological detachment on the impact of remote work on productivity

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Remote work is a type in which work is done away from the main office space or manufacturing unit and new technology facilitates this separation by allowing communication. Remote work can also be done “online” (with direct computer connection) or “offline,” be organized individually or collectively, be all or part of a worker's task, and be done by independent workers or employees (ILO, 2020). Integrating remote work in the workplace arose from the oil crises of the 1970s, the basic concept was to lessen the rate and inconvenience of traveling in and out from work on a daily basis as a result, fuel costs would be reduced Nilles (1994). Furthermore, there remained ambiguity regarding oil availability in the future and whether the price hike would be permanent (ILO, 2016). While the word "remote" dates back to the early early 1970s, when it was popularized by Jack M. Nilles, there is still no agreement on what it means Nilles et al (1996).

As per Wright (2020), twenty-three percent of survey respondents choose to put in more hours, and forty-two percent of employees working remotely felt as attached to their coworkers as they used to when they work in the office. Telecommuters additional like to employ technical tools than their office counterparts, allowing them to collaborate remotely. Eurofound & ILO (2017) concluded that remote workers may feel under pressure to stay electronically connected to the employer's premises at all times. This is similar to many employees who work on the employer's premises but feel compelled to be connected to their workplace at all times, resulting in mental exhaustion (Belkin et al., 2016). When the proportions of male and female remote workers are compared, it is evident that employees that are men are probable to do so than women employees.

Due to the voluntary nature of remote work, employees and employers may only implement remote work by mutual agreement Kelliher, & Anderson (2010). As a result, there is no such thing as a right to remote work, and there is no responsibility to do so Kraut et al (2002). The European Framework Agreement also assures that both the employee and the employer have the right to terminate remote work at any moment without jeopardizing the employment relationship or working conditions Ajunwa et al (2017).

During the COVID-19 outbreak, many employees may be experiencing full-time remote working for the first time, while also being separated from coworkers, friends, and, in some cases, family. Their normal lifestyles have been disrupted, which may have resulted in heightened stress, anxiety, and physical and mental strain. These stresses have a far stronger influence in the current economic context. When a company experiences a setback, there may be more redundancies, layoffs, and terminations, causing workers to face more worry, uncertainty, and insecurity, which can contribute to depression (ILO, 2020). Working remotely frequently results in a blurring of the barriers between work and personal life, as well as an increase in work hours and intensity. As a result, it can disrupt personal life and cause work-life conflicts, both of which can be detrimental to workers' well-being and have an influence on overall job performance (ILO,2020).

Psychological detachment from work goes beyond simply being absent from work during non­working hours and refraining from performing job-related duties. In psychological terms, it entails leaving one's workplace behind (Sonnetag & Bayer 2005). Overall daytime work engagement improves as a result of properly detaching from work (Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012) and feeling restored (Kühnel et al 2012, Lanaj et al 2014), according to research. Detaching from work has also been shown to have long-term benefits, such as increased work productivity Binnewies, (2010) and improved life satisfaction (Sonnentag and Fritz. 2015). Failure to effectively detach from work, on the other hand, has been proven to result in heightened levels of stress as a result of outside-of-work rumination on incomplete tasks or stressful work-related situations (Brosschot et al 2005).

The Local Government Service is the subject of study, and it was instituted by the Local Government Service Act, 2003 (Act 656) and modified by the Local Governance Act, 2016 (Act 936) with the purpose of “ensuring an effective administration and management of local government in the country”. The Covid-19 epidemic has compelled the service's directors to adopt efforts to encourage remote working as a method of implementing the social distance protocol. This knowledge affected the researchers decision to work in this service.

1.2 Problem Statement

Researchers have studied remote work, psychological detachment, and work productivity at length (Sonnentag et. al, 2015; Choudhury, 2021; Etzion et al; Aronsson et al., 2003; westman et al., 1997; darley, 2017) the biggest misconception was in a study led by Prof. Parker on remote work which was only done during a pandemic (COVID-19) era. Individuals' affective state was looked at after examining the benefits of psychological detachment (emotions and moods) regardless of how these affective states will affect work productivity (Sonnentag et. al, 2020). Work from home will eliminate the conventional relationship between home and work location which resulted in geographical freedom regardless of psychological detachment (Choudhury, 2021).

Numerous research have looked into the influence of remote work on work productivity, albeit on a small scale (Thorstensson, 2020; Virick et al; Bailey & Kurland, 2002; Dubrin, 1991; Golden, 2006; Allen et al 2015). There have been research that looked at issues on remote work and how it impacted work productivity. However, it appears that the effects of remote work on work productivity and psychological detachment mediating between these variables have not been studied much (Sonnentag and Niessen, 2020). Remote working is a complex process as individuals are complex and diverse. No one theory of remote working can explain teleworking particularly across diverse cultures. The findings of this study will throw further light on the mechanisms that drive the positive impacts of psychological detachment, as well as discover factors that explain when it might be better to work remotely and think about work when not at work.

The study is therefore aimed at researching into how affective states associated with psychological detachment affect workers' productivity when they work remotely.

1.3 Research Objectives

This section was grouped into two namely; general and specific objective.

1.3.1 General Objective

The general objective of the study was to examine the impact of remote working on productivity of workers at some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study were to;

I. Identify the impact of psychological detachment on work productivity among workers at some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region.
II. Examine the relationship between remote working and productivity of workers at some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region.
III. Examine the relationship between remote work and psychological detachment of workers at some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region.
IV. Investigate the mediating role of psychological detachment from work in the relationship between remote working and work productivity among workers at some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region.

1.4 Research Questions

I. What are the impacts of psychological detachment on work productivity among workers at some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region?
II. What is the relationship between remote work and productivity of workers at some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region?
III. What is the relationship between remote work and productivity of workers at some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region?
IV. What is the mediating role of psychological detachment between remote working and productivity of workers?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The study was important based on its theoretical and practical contribution.

Firstly, the current research aimed to contribute to new knowledge in the domain of work productivity, with the current study showing that remote working would have direct influence on work productivity with psychological detachment indicating the extent of that relationship. Available research on remote work have focused mostly on the employee's mentality rather than on the influence of remote work on productivity. As a result, this study made a significant contribution to our knowledge the link between remote work and job productivity.

Practically, this study contributed to improving human resource practices and procedures on remote working. It would serve as an avenue for learning, innovation, creativity and adaptation of remote working on the local governance system in Ghana.

The current research will have enormous benefit to the Coordinating Directors and Chief Executives of the local governance systems of Ghana, allied institutions and the entire service industries in the country. These findings can be used by top level managers to propose strategies and policies on how to improve work productivity in their respective industries, thereby providing further explanations about office space costs, reduced expenses of organizations, such as living expenses, general upkeep, computer systems, cellular phones, workplaces, utility costs, machinery, and specify that corporations can evade leasing additional offices through a telecommute activity.

Finally, it will benefit the socio-economic development of Ghana by allowing individuals who might otherwise be incapable of coming to the workplace, for instance mothers, the physically impaired and workers that live far from the office and don't want to be moved to work comfortably. These insights can be used to develop strategies to minimize absenteeism. According to Lupu (2017), looking at these absenteeism factors: "diseases, family events, terrible weather conditions, nervous breakdown" will minimize absence when looked at through remote working. These when looked at will enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of employees in Ghana, thereby leading to productivity and enhancing socio-economic activities of Ghana.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The Research was held in the second most populated Region in Ghana i.e the Ashanti Region. The Ashanti Region is second to the Greater Accra in terms of greater economic activities in the country. The nature of the research requires a region with great economic activities. That reason influenced the choice of the region. The institution to be studied to ascertain the influence of the variables of the research is the Local Government Service of Ghana. The Covid-19 pandemic has forced Directors of this service to institute measures to promote remote working as a means to implementing the social distance protocol. The choice of these Assemblies was influenced by this information.

The study is centered on the impact of remote working on work productivity. These variables are considered using the psychological detachment as a mediator. The study therefore would not extend beyond this boundary.

1.7 Brief Overview of Research Methodology

The best suited purpose of the research is the descriptive approach. The research population will cover all employees of some selected MMDAs in the Ashanti Region under the Local Government Service of Ghana. The study's population is 483, which includes all personnel from the designated MMDAs in the Ashanti Region of Ghana's Local Government Service. A quantitative approah was chosen in carrying out the study.

The researcher adopted the probability sampling design, which allows the researcher to set the likelihood that each sampling unit will have an equal chance of being included in the sample. Systematic sampling strategy was employed to randomly choose the unit with which to begin Black (2004). Sample size was determined by Yamane's (1967) general formula, which is n signify the sample size, N signify the estimated population and e is error margin (0.05) n=1+483*(0 0S)2 n= 229. The sample size for the study was 229 respondents chosen from 532 selected MMDA's staffs in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Through literature reviews and online searches, a list of determinants of remote work, psychological detachment, and job productivity was developed and transformed into a questionnaire for the main study, which was analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) v22.0. After sorting responses to questions in the study's questionnaire, the analysis involved computing percentages using frequency distributions.

1.8 Limitations to the study

The study highlighted numerous limitations, as well as potential directions for further research.

The temporal association between remote work, psychological detachment and productivity were uncertain due to the fact that subjects involved should have been followed overtime to track their development, cross sectional studies are unable to measure incidence. it biased the results. There fore future research should adopt longitudinal study.

In general, There were some concern of the mediating variable which relied on a self-rated measure, in other to address this issue, the researcher employed several statistical test to examine the influence of psychological detachment and concluded that it did not play a significant role in influencing the results.

Further, data were collected from some slected MMDAs, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Further research is recommended to examine the external validity of the findings in different region or any other occupational settings.

It was dificult to draw a valid conclusion due to the insufficient sample size. A larger sample size was required to ensure that the sample is considered representative of the population and that the statistical result can be generalised.

1.9 Organization of the study

The study was divided into five sections. Every chapter was divided into sections and sub-sections. The first chapter was the general introduction and background of the study, statement of problem, objectives of the study, the methodology applied, conceptual framework, justification and significance of the study, the scope of the study, limitations and organization of the study. The second chapter reviewed existing literature on the issue of dependent variables, mediators and independent variables. This chapter also looked at the various literature gap, research framework - conceptual and theoretical and research hypothesis. Chapter three concentrated on the research instruments that was used and issues on the pilot study. The research design that was adopted - sample size, target population, sampling technique. The study also looked at the research approach adopted. Chapter four gave an in-depth analysis of the data and a general discussion of the main findings of the investigations . Therefore, it looked at the results from the pilot study, the research approach adopted - Descriptive analysis, Reliability test, Normality test, Linearity test, Correlation analysis and Multiple Regression Analysis and hypothesis results. Chapter five then concluded the study by summarizing the main findings, conclusions and necessary recommendations to help shape future policies. The researcher therefore considered the implications of the study, limitation of the study, recommendation for future research and conclusion.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This section of the research reviews literature related to the three variables under consideration in the study. These are employee productivity, remote working, and psychological detachment. In addition, theories related to the variables would be explored as part of the review process. The research framework, context of study and the hypotheses are also explained in this section.

According to Global Workplace Analytics (GWA), a research-based consulting organization, 80% to 90% of the US workforce would like to work remotely part-time (Latest Telecommuting Statistics, 2017). Because of technology improvements and globalization, there has been a surge in interest in researching the effects of remote work during the last decade Carmela, (2019). Because to technology advancements, working from anywhere on the earth is now possible, as long as one has access to Internet Hendricks, (2018).

As a consequence, more flexible work arrangements are becoming increasingly common, potentially affecting employees' psychological well-being and overall productivity. Working from home has received a lot of attention recently, with some claiming that it helps employees be more productive since there are fewer distractions at work, while others believe that it is not the best setting because it allows for more home distractions (Fonner et al 2010).

The former chief executive officer of Yahoo scrapped the company's policy on remote work for all her employees in the year 2013, explaining, " Communication and collaboration will be critical if we are to become the best place to work, thus we must work together" (Pepitone, 2013, p. 1).

Those who work remotely are extra involved, passionate, and dedicated to their profession considering if working outside the office 20% of the time or less" Gallup, (2017). As a result, if companies wish to remain profitable and competitive in a technologically sophisticated world, a deeper understanding of the effects of remote work is critical for the workplace's future.

2.2 Conceptual Review

The conceptual review seeks to understand and explore the key constructs underpinning the study. In addition, it provides for a comparison of the constructs, their dimensions and the operationalization of the constructs within the context of the study

2.2.1 Concept of Productivity

Productivity is defined by the OECD (2020) as the ratio of output volume to input volume. This allows workers to evaluate their productivity as an output vs an input, such as sales or units generated, such as the number of hours worked or labor cost (Beno and Hvorecky, 2021). Furthermore, Pritchard (2003) defines productivity as "the efficiency with which a system employs its resources to fulfill its objectives." Pritchard's perspective on productivity is similar to that of the OECD. The meaning of the words changes, but the connotation remains the same. The input is represented by resources, while the outcome is represented by goals.

The Oxford dictionary (2021) defines “productivity to be the efficiency with which things are being produced”. This definition focuses on the process of producing the result. It adds a new dimension to the productivity debate: the process. Ekienabor (2016) describes productivity “as a measurement of the quality and quantity of work done by considering the costs incurred to do the work.” From the perspective of Ekienabor (2016), Productivity encompasses more than simply input and output, but also the state of the input and output, as well as the amount of work completed in relation to the cost of the process. Ekienabor introduced another element of cost of processing the output.

In scientific literature, ‘productivity' is The connection between output and input is described as the relationship between outcomes or profits and sacrifices. If the ratio of output and a certain section of input is included, this is called partial productivity': for example, Labor productivity as the production quantity of each labor unit or the number of working hours of individual product units (Singh & Mohanty, 2012).

Productivity is the capacity of a person to use all of his ingenuity. Productivity is therefore the connection between outcomes (outputs) received from utilized resources (inputs) to make them Mora et al., (2020). Production is the ratio of output to input that evaluates production efficiency and efficiency Wirawan's (2015)

In several research, employee productivity is connected to efficiency and/or effectiveness employee productivity, they believe, comprises increased job efficiency, effectiveness, and time management. (Konya & Sotonye, 2020). However, in work environments, there are nummerous insubstantial inputs and outputs, such as knowledge and expertise, making it more difficult to gather and quantify productivity Karr-Wisniewski et al (2010). Similarly, at the employee level, productivity is largely assessed in terms of performed activities. Rennecker et al (2019) defined productivity as "work completed within a particular time period with a some resources". (Sotonye et al, 2020).

Whereas Yuniarsih and Suwanto believe that productivity may be defined as a concrete outcome (product) generated by people or groups in a work activity during a certain unit of time. (Mora et al., 2020). The notion of productivity essentially encompasses attitudes and actions that contribute to continuous progress, and has the view that today's performance must be better than yesterday, and tomorrow's performance must be greater than today's achievements, according to Sima et al. (2020). Hasibuan (2012) Productivity is defined as the ratio of output to input (output) and input (input). Increased efficiency is the only way to enhance productivity (time, materials, energy) with the work system, technical production, and a growth in worker skills.

According to Ananta & Adnyani (2016), productivity is primarily an economic drive to obtain the biggest number of results at the lowest possible cost, or how to produce or manufacture the greatest number of goods and services using the most efficient resources. Productivity is a metric for measuring efficiency and effectiveness in the workplace. Productivity may be the individual's or team's efforts. Productivity can therefore be the productivity of individuals or teams. (Beno & Hvorecky, 2021). Moore et al (2013) indicate that there are two dimensions to productivity: performance and finance. Performance productivity arguements are concerned with the quantity of yields generated, while finance productivity is concerned with the monetary worth of products. (Sotonye & Konya, 2020).

Employee productivity is one of the advantages of organizational excellence. Organizations strive to discover the causes and variables that contribute to boosting employee productivity so that they may accomplish their organizational goals Faregh et al (2021). Organizational learning refers to an organization's ability to process knowledge through acquiring, transmitting and integrating knowledge and behavior change, which in the end leads to a new cognitive state to enhance performance Pham LT & Hoang HV (2019). High-performing, efficient businesses have a culture that promotes employee participation. Workers are therefore more eager to participate in decision­making, setting goals or issue solving, which therefore lead to better performance of employees Bhatti, K. K., & Qureshi, T. M. (2007). It was previously thought that productivity could only be attained through a set of material elements. In reality, more access to money and hardware leads to increased organizational efficiency Van Ness et al (2010). Other elements, such as remote working, are now thought to have a major influence in productivity, according to researchers. Organizational learning is another significant component in employee productivity.

2.2.2 Concept of Remote Working

Although telework (or remote work) was predicted as early as 1950, it was not made practical until the early 1970s with the introduction of personal computers and portable modems (Nilles, 1994; Schall, 2019). The term "telecommuting" was coined in 1973 to underline that telework might be used to replace the everyday commute (Nilles, 1994; Schall, 2019). Remote work can also be done “online” (with direct computer connection) or “offline,” be organized individually or collectively, be all or part of a worker's task, and be done by independent workers or employees (ILO, 2020). In a decade, the number of teleworkers had increased by more than tenfold, reaching over 11.1 million (Shellenbarger, 1994 and Martinez-Amador, 2016). Several reasons helped to develop telecommuting. Remote working has, in fact, been a “luxury for the relatively affluent” (Desilver, 2020), such as higher-income earners (e.g., over 75% of employees who work from home have an annual earning above $65,000) and white collar workers (e.g., over 40% of teleworkers are executives, managers, or professionals). First, many firms strive to reduce office space expenditures. Secondly, in the face of rising competition, many firms are taking extended working days and flexible work schedules to better address customers' requirements and to maintain and recruit qualified staff. Thirdly, the cost-effectiveness and reasonable cost of computer and telecommunication technologies enables the ICTs to enter the company. (Brimsek & Bender, 1995; Donnelly & Johns, 2020 ).

According to the authors, teleworking is the most common kind of distributed labor. However, this working arrangement is sometimes referred to as television or remote work. This work arrangement was first defined as working outside of a regular office or workplace, and it was invented in the 1970s by Jack Nilles while stuck in LA traffic. Kurland and Bailey (Kurland & Bailey, 1999). Despite the fact that the terms teleworking and telecommuting are often used, some argue that they are not interchangeable. Garrett and Danziger (2007), for example, believe that teleworking encompasses four characteristics and a broader concept (work location, information technology, time distribution, and diversity of employment). Telecommuting is a more specific term that refers to performing work from home in order to decrease commute time (Ellison, 2004). Telework, according to (Nilles, 1994 cited in Schall, 2019), is "working outside the traditional office while connecting with others via telecommunications or computer-based technologies" (Bailey & Kurland, 2002, ). The ability to communicate with anyone on a mobile device over the Internet even outside of business hours has become a popular type of remote work (Ferguson et al., 2016).

According to (Parris 2017), the terminology is inconsistent. "Because the concept of telecommuting has been around for decades, new terminology and phrases have emerged to replace what is, in essence, an old workplace concept." Schall is a word that comes to mind when I think (2019). This study will thus utilize the word "remote work" and utilise material that uses the terminology option of teleworking, telecommuting or remote operating according to the suggested definition of telework (Fitzer's, 1997; Nilles, 1994; Schall, 2019).The remote nature of employment offers a variable working location for an employee and the number of individuals working remotely in the United States in 2016. (at least part-time) increased to 43% (Darley, 2017 & Schall, 2019). A flexible place to work offers many professional people certain savings, including a lower amount of time on the road to work, a lower use of gas for transport and a lower cost of decide which clothes to wear for that specific day of work. This allows the firm providing its employees with the option of working remotely to show the importance of fulfilling the employee needs. This may therefore be regarded as a way by which six firms modify their jobs to meet their needs, which in turn may represent their wishes. “a better match between their personalities and their work” Gajendran et al, 2007. For this motive, numerous researchers in the recent studies focussed on the unique consequences of remote work and job satisfaction. Despite the limited technology compared with today, the benefits of remote work surfaced quite early. Now, the unprecedented outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has required millions of people across the world into being remote workers, inadvertently leading to a de facto global experiment of remote working (Kniffin et al., 2020).

2.2.3 The Positive Organizational Impact of Remote Worker

Solomon and Templer (1993) cited by Armstrong-Stassen (1998) It has been observed that 75% of firms using 18 telecommuting systems have been happy or extremely satisfied, and only 8% are unsatisfied. Remote work has shown that crucial HR indicators have a beneficial influence on the workforce. For instance, absenteeism has been reduced and employee loyalty to the business has been increased Martinez-Amador (2016). In a research conducted by 20 people through 20 organisations, either telecommuting or pilot projects were initiated, (Olson 1987a cited in Mallia, K. L., & Ferris, S. P. 2000) Telecommuting discovered that strengthened existing working-class relationships with their organisations. In addition, telecommuting was shown to help companies to retain staff who could be relocated and to recruit qualified individuals who did not want to move around and who needed flexibility (Davenport & Pearlson, 1998).

2.2.4 The Negative Organizational Impact of Remote Worker

Remote work may adversely affect companies. The personnel that are often more suitable are those firms who want to keep on site (Johnson, 1997). Telecommuting may also decrease the synergy between organizations. Workers coordination and motivation, the promotion of a shared culture and belonging sensations in a telecommuting setting are considerably more difficult to sustain (Davenport & Pearlson, 1998). A second adverse effect is the unhappiness of telecommuters' bosses. This is frequently due to the difficulties managers have in adjusting their management approaches to the new telecommuting realities (Christensen, 1992).

2.2.5 Concept of Psychological Detachment

Psychological detachment has been described as the process of ‘switching off' when not at work, and becoming physically and mentally distanced from work, in order to enable recovery (Etzion et al., 1998; Sonnentag and Fritz, 2007; Skurak, 2021). Relaxing, cognitive disconnection (Cropley & Millward Purvis, 2003), Work Relief (Etzion et al., 1998), The Recovery Need (Aronsson et al., 2003), and restore were some of the terms used to describe the psychological detachment from work (Hartig et al, 2003). The word "detachment," coined by Etzion et al. (1998), should be expanded to include the psychological aspect of being removed from the job, rather than only the physical removal of resources that have been depleted. People don't use the same resources throughout their labor (Westman & Eden, 1997), so resources are recovered through holiday recovery procedures (Fritz & Sonnentag, 2006) and other off-job activities, such as military service physically focused (Etzion et al, 1998). The foundation of separation should thus be removed during working hours from work-related activities; For example, after hours of work, one should not engage in job-related phone conversations Sonnentag and Bayer (2005) He went on to say that you must also be mindedly detached from work, so not only don't take any real tasks in connection with work, but also don't participate in work-related thinking to make them fully psychological separation from work. It is very important to distinguish between physical isolation and psychological separation. Individuals "ruminate" on any issue linked to work even while they are not at the real office. (Pravettoni, Cropley, Leotta, & Bagnara, 2008). There should be considerable attention to the subject of the psychological distinctions from work, especially if we consider how many individuals will carry them home work the following day, as is often the case in teaching professions (Aronsson et al., 2003; Cropley & Millward Purvis, 2003).

2.3 Theoretical Review

There has been a lot of study done on remote working. As a result, a variety of ideas have emerged to explain the link between remote work and job efficiency. The Stressor Detachment Model (SDM), Socio-technical Systems Theory (STS), and Instrumentality Theory have been identified as the most significant theories.

2.3.1 The Stressor-Detachment model

The Stressor-Detachment model was chosen for this study because the occupational health psychology literature has demonstrated strong associations between this phenomena and employee outcomes.

The stressor-depletion model conceptualizes work stresses as exogenous factors that impact psychological detachment (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2015). Employment stresses can lead to bad results such as negative excitement and/or psychological and bodily problems in the working environment. There are countless stresses, among other things: physical, functional, social. In addition, catastrophic events and conditions (time pressure, work overload, work complexity, workplace bullying, role ambiguity, etc.) are part of the work stressor idea (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2015).

In the present study, psychological detachment is designed to mediate in the link between remote work and productivity. The psychological union between the employees is defined not in the workplace, but in the workplace (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2015). In concept, psychological detachment is mostly structured as a lack of something that doesn't think about work and let work and thinking go when not in the working environment.

The Stressor-Detachment model is used as a mediator who describes a process by which distant work impacts on productivity of workers. Remote labor affects psychological separation and psychological detachment as a consequence of improved productivity is concepted (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2015). The absence of psychological detachment combines with ideas like rumor, repeated thinking, or concern (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2015). Empirical data shows, however, that it is not only the reverse of concern or rumor, but that it is a different notion. Psychological detachment is also favorably linked to other sensations of recovery such as calm, mastery and control, but it is a separate notion that was separated in confirmatory factor analysis (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2015).

2.3.2 Socio-technical systems theory

Recent study reveals that, in addition to addressing the requirement to enhance internal efficiency and generate competitive advantages, remote work is a phenomena highly related to mobile and virtual ICT technology progress (Hill, Erickson, Holmes, & Ferris, 2010; Pearce, 2009), The influence of the globalizing economy and the requirement for employees to frequently perform during non-traditional working hours (Kumar, van Fenema, & Von Glinow, 2009 cited in Martinez-Amador 2016). The implementation of remote work is a strategic choice that can have an influence on the company's competitiveness, and therefore can have an impact on the organisation. Since remote workforce programs involve complex inter-relationships between work environments, work practices, individual motivations, management, and technology (Bélanger et al., 2013), The assessment of the varied effects of isolation can prevent its strategic effect. Remote labor is, as other scholars have noted, a technical development whose implications cannot be understand without examining the social structure that is integrated into it Berniker (1996). Approaching our investigation with the socio-technical consequences of remote labor will allow for a more effective result. So in sociotechnical systems theory, I underpin the theoretical framework.

Socio-technical systems theory (STS) has origins in the concept of organisations' socio-technical systems (Katz & Kahn, 1966; Trist & Bamforth, 1951). From an STS perspective, companies are open work systems that turn inputs into desired products. (Hendrick & Kleiner, 2002; Morrison, Cordery, Girardi, & Payne, 2005; Pasmore, 1988; Trist & Bamforth, 1951). Two or more people interact in a working system utilizing a certain type of job design, hardware and software machine(s), and information and expertise in an internal and external structure(s).

The theory of social and technological systems includes four important factors for transforming the inputs to the outputs of the work system: Technology-related variables contained in the technical subsystem, social and human-individual factors, organization structures and working processes covered by the structure of the organization or the work-design subsystem and the environment outside the working system, Rouse, Rouse, Rouse (2021). The technical subsystem comprises elements that reflect technologies, rules, and practices that characterize modes of production, specific actions on an item while doing work, and a strategy for decreasing process uncertainty. The technical subsystem, which is related to telecommuting, describes elements such as the types of ICT utilized when telecommuting, the facilities accessible to telecommute from, the organization's reward and compensation schemes, and task/work design while telecommuting Bélanger et al (2013).

2.4 Empirical Review and Hypothesis Development

In the section, specific predictions about what will happen in a relationship between remote and productivity where psychological detachment mediate the relationship were considered. Prevailing litereature and reasoning to conclude what will happen were were used to develop the hypoyhesis.

2.4.1 The relationship between Remote Work and Work Productivity

According to Lupu (2017) some of the primary reasons why businesses chose the remote work method was to save money on things like "rent, maintenance, use of computers, telephones, offices, utilities, equipment, and so on" (Thorstensson, 2020). In general, the link between remote work and productivity is based on the premise that it gives employees more choice and autonomy in how they complete tasks, allowing them to balance professional responsibilities with individual (life and family) duties Virick et al (2010). The question of whether remote work has a negative and negative impact on workplace productivity has been debated Bailey et al, (2002). Some research has found evidence of a linear relationship among remote work and productivity, implying that workers who work remotely more are productive and content with their jobs Dubrin, (1991); Guimaraes et al, (1999), or that employees who work remotely less are less productive and satisfied with their jobs Dubrin, (1991); Guimaraes et al, (1999). Dubrin, (1991); Guimaraes et al, (1999). (Cooper et al, (2002); Pinsonneault, (2001); Golden (2006) discovered evidence for a nonlinear link between the degree of remote work and work productivity, in contrast to the 21 argument for a linear association among remote work and productivity. According to the researcher, as the usage of remote work increases, so does work productivity; however, this is only true up to a point (Golden et al, 2005). Upsurges in remote work resulted in a drop in work productivity (Golden, 2006). According to the study, managers should restrict remote working to a few days a week to meet both needs (a flexible schedule and social connection with coworkers). In conclusion, Golden (2006) found that remote work is likely to increase work productivity, but only to a certain extent.

Remote work is essential in the case of the organisation employing individuals who cannot ordinarily visit the workplace, such as moms, disabled persons, people living distant from the office and who do not want to be moved Ford et al, (1991). This has the potential of increasing productivity. Remote work is seen to promote productivity, assure retention, enhance corporate commitment and improve organizational effectiveness. Harker, (2012) asserts that it is actually helpful for corporations. The lack of social connection with coworkers and the heightened impression of isolation that telecommuters may experience when teleworking too frequently during the week, according to Allen et al. (2015), might explain the curvilinear link. These potential disadvantages may outweigh the advantages of working remotely, lowering employee job productivity. Thus, the following hypothesis was made:

H 1: There is a significant positive relationship between remote working and work productivity

2.4.2 The relationship between Remote Working and Psychological Detachment

The digitalisation of knowledge has been applied making the way people work changed (Vuori et. al, 2018), supporting the United Nations' recommendations and goals for sustainable development United Nations (2020,2015). Because of the current progress of information and communication technology (ICT), Work may be done anywhere and at any time by the workforce (Allvin et al 2011). Organizations that use remote work have a combination of temporal flexibility, which is a difference in the number of hours worked and the schedule of the job; e.g., flextime (Arrowsmith et al 2000), and spatial flexibility (allowing work duties to be completed outside of the workplace, for example, at home Wessels, 2019).

Employees must focus on getting their job done regardless of location in today's work environment. Being physically away from the office does not always imply psychologically leaving one's workplace behind (Sonnentag & Bayer, 2005). However, people were required to work from home due to the COVID-19 outbreak. Some scholars even believe that the pandemic will make some jobs permanently remote (Sytch & Greer, 2020). During work-off time, psychological separation from work is a strong predictor of recovery and assists in the recovery from occupational stress (Sonnentag & Bayer, 2005). The effort-recovery model claims that psychological detachment is necessary for employees to perform at their best at work, and some meta-analytic findings have shown a small positive relationship between psychological detachment from work and remote workers' performance (Wendsche and Lohmann-Haislah, 2017); however, several studies show a negative relationship between remote work and psychological detachment from work during non-work time (Wendsche and Lohmann-Haislah, 2017). (Eschleman et al., 2014; de Bloom et al., 2015; Headrick et al., 2019). The outcomes of this study may put some light on the literature's confusing results. Psychological detachment, in particular, may have a role in the nature of this interaction, since remote work is not always advantageous for productivity because it may take the employee longer to return to work after non­work time. Work productivity is increased when non-detachment in these states is combined with autonomous work motivation, as non-detachment in these states does not deplete the employee's energy. Many individuals think about their jobs at home, continue to worry about their jobs, concentrate over work-related problems, or anticipate their future possibilities (Sonnentag & Bayer, 2005). Thus, the following hypothesis was developed:

H 2: Remote working has a significant positive effect on psychological detachment

2.4.3 The relationship between Psychological Detachment and Work Productivity

Psychological detachment from work during off-hours appears to be beneficial to workers' well­being and many aspects of job productivity, according to empirical data. Day of the Sun (2012). Well-being is a broad concept that encompasses both positive short-term and long-term emotional states (e.g., excitement, relaxation), as well as longer-term psychological health factors (e.g., life satisfaction, absence of burnout) Day of the Sun (2012).

One component of psychological detachment that has been discussed thus far is the importance of resources; is there a restoration method that occurs during off-work hours to replenish expended resources? Hobfoll referred to both ancient and new resources as being both conserved and gained. After studying Sonnentag's stances on how resources are handled at work and at home, a concern arises; Do people just utilize certain work resources that can be left undisturbed at home to recoup the resources? Or is it a matter of resource intensity, where some resources are used more intensively during the workday and then the intensity of that resource may be decreased, but not entirely shut off, during off-work time to allow for recuperation. Sonnentag (2001) discussed resources as being fully spent at work and that the many activities not being employed at home are going to restore them for the next time. However, as an example, most individuals at work require social resources in order to engage with supervisors and colleagues, and social people at home if they connect with family and friends Heaphy & Dutton (2008). It cannot be assumed that just one area of life employs a resource, such as social capacity Motowildo, Borman & Schmit (1997). The intensity of a resource or the usage of the same characteristics of the same resource at home and at work may therefore lead to recovery Baumeister, Muraven & Tice (2000).

People detach from work in a variety of ways, and different leisure activities after work are selected based on factors such as personality, time restrictions, family obligations, and financial resources. (Sonnentag, 2001). However, while considering job recovery through social activities, it is crucial to keep in mind that jobs with strong emotional demands, such as sales, are likely to be excluded, because such individuals employ their social skills all day at work. Taris & Schaufeli (2014). Again, it's unrealistic to believe that people recover from labor by ceasing to use certain resources. Off-the-job social activities, on the other hand, do not need emotional control because they are voluntary and with people you know and like. Because detachment may help to the avoidance of continuous resource drain and restoration of resources, psychological detachment is favorably related with job engagement and high productivity. Sonnentag et al (2010). However, the relation between psychological detachment and productivity appears to be more complex. Shimazu et al. (2019), for example, found a negative relationship between these factors, implying that mentally switching off during off-work time did not boost productivity, but rather worsened it. Individuals who are significantly detached from their professions during off-work time may find it difficult to "switch on" again the next morning (Fritz et al 2010), and they may require more time to mobilize their energy for work, resulting in decreased productivity.

H 3: Psychological detachment has a significant positive impact on work productivity

2.4.4 Psychological detachment mediating the relationship between remote working and work productivity

Unwinding, or cognitively switching-off, is a phrase used to express psychological detachment from work (Cropley & Millward Purvis, 2003), a break from work (Etzion et al., 1998; Sonnentag & Bayer, 2005), the desire for relaxation (Aronsson et al., 2003), and refurbishing (Aronsson et al., 2003). (Hartig, Evans, Jamner, Davis, & Garling, 2003). Etzion et al. (1998) used the term "detachment" to describe the psychological aspect of being separated from one's work surroundings rather than being physically removed from one's work location. Resources are supplied during vacations through recuperation processes (Fritz & Sonnentag, 2006; Westman & Eden, 1997) and other non-work activities, such as physically demanding military service, according to previous research (Etzion et al, 1998), since they aren't using the same resources as they were at work. Sonnentag and Bayer (2005) also said that one must be mentally disconnected from work, meaning that they are not only engaged in any real job-related duties, but also not engaged in work-related thinking, in order to attain complete psychological detachment from work.

High workload is typically associated with psychological detachment since employees would be concerned about not having enough time to complete their responsibilities Sonnentag & Kruel (2006). Instead of forgetting about work-related issues when they come home, they'll keep thinking about the incomplete chores, feeling anxious or upset about not finishing what was assigned, and devising strategies for completing the jobs the next day Paulino (2019). It's a difficult cycle to break. In other situations, people feel compelled to do their chores at home, making it difficult to unwind and totally detach from work if they do not utilize their off-work time to fully recuperate but rather to complete their job-related daily activities (Sonnentag & Kruel, 2006: 199).

Telecommuting had not yet made its way into the American workplace, and when it had, it did not appear to be beneficial in minimizing work-family problems. Instead, telecommuting appears to have contributed in the overall extension of work hours, allowing people to work longer hours and/or employers to expand or intensify labor demands. Noonan and Glass (2012).

H 4: Psychological detachment significantly mediate the relationship between remote working and work productivity.

2.5 Conceptual Framework

This section of the chapter focuses on presenting a conceptual framework that summarizes the study, as well show the relationship between variables, as shown in Figure 2.1 below.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework on Remote Working and Work Productivity

Source:Author's own construct (2021)

The conceptual framework was comprised of three fundamental phases, which briefly was explained in chapter two of this research. Using the primary results as a guide, the following 27 hypothesized model relationships were developed and tested: The relationship between remote working and productivity, Remote work has a significant positive effect on psychological detachment, psychological detachment has a significant positive impact on job productivity and Psychological detachment significantly mediate the relationship between remote working and work productivity.

2.6 The context of the study

Despite the fact that telecommuting has been more popular in the developed world over the last two decades, businesses in Africa, particularly West Africa, are yet to adopt the practice, leaving a void for study on telecommuting in a developing country like Ghana. The goal of the study was to look at the technological, environmental, and organizational aspects that impact telecommuting acceptance, as well as the possible benefits of implementing telecommuting in Ericsson Ghana's operations (Ansong and Boateng, 2017).

As a guiding lens, the TOE (technology-organization-environment) framework was employed (Ansong and Boateng, 2017). From a critical realism standpoint, the study used a qualitative research technique. As a result, Ericsson Ghana was chosen as the case study. For the case study, Miles and Huberman's transcendental realism data analysis technique was applied (Ansong and Boateng, 2017). The conclusions of this study proved that the implementation of telecommuting methods benefited both the employees and the firm as a whole (Ansong and Boateng, 2017).

2.7 Conclusion

In this chapter, different literature on remote working and work productivity was reviewed. In doing so, research first introduced different concepts of remote working, work productivity and psychological detachment. The theoretical framework which guided the study was followed after the conceptual review. In view of this, the stressor detachment model, socio-technical systems theory, and instrumentality theory. In addition, the study also concentrated on presenting different literatures based on the objectives raised which was termed as the empirical review. The chapter concluded that a conceptual framework offered a summary of the relationship between the variables in the analysis, diagrammatically.

CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONAL PROFILE

3.1 Introduction

This chapter discussed the methods and methodologies that were used in collecting relevant research data. The focus areas included the research design, the target population, the sample size and sampling techniques, sources of data, data collection instrument, method of data analysis, the validity and reliability of the study and the ethical considerations of the study.

3.2 Research Design

Research design is the blueprint for fulfilling research objectives and answering research questions. A research design is a plan or procedure that aims to accomplish a particular research objective (Adams et al., 2007). The research design provides the overall strategy the researcher deployed to carry out the research. It is the framework by which the researcher collects, measures and analyzes the relevant data for the study (Sileyew, 2019). The suitability of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methodologies research inquiry approaches was investigated. Mixed- method procedures are progressively utilized in extending the space and expand the researcher's understandings of the study since they blend research strategies and help researchers to gain a broader picture, however they may require numerous investigators (Sandelowski 2000). While qualitative research is typically exploratory in nature and involves purposeful sampling to improve understanding of the information-rich case (Sandelowski 2000), quantitative research ideally involves probability sampling to allow statistical inferences to be made. Despite the key differences, the two techniques can be combined usefully. In the end, it was decided to use the quantitative method. The quantitative research was used to gain detailed insight from respondents about the study topic. The quantitative research paradigm is a way of researching a social or human problem by putting to the test a theory composed of numerical variables that are assessed using statistical processes to discover if the theory's predicted generalizations hold true (Creswell 2014). The approach uses a sample of a population to offer a numerical description of trends, attitudes, or views in that group. According to Creswell (2014), the features of this research technique are as follows; In terms of the researcher's connection with the topic of study, the quantitative research paradigm maintains that the researcher should stay detached and independent from the subject of investigation in order to offer an objectively assessment of the situation.

3.2.1 Research Purpose

Because research questions should be addressed as clearly as possible, the objective of a study, which is closely linked to the research question, is perhaps the most crucial factor to consider (Silva et al, 2015). The research might be descriptive, exploratory, or explanatory.

The purpose of a descriptive study is to paint a picture of a situation, person or event, or to demonstrate how objects are connected to one another in the natural world (Blumberg, Cooper and Schnidler, 2005).

Exploratory research is utilized when there isn't enough information available regarding a phenomena or an issue that has been clearly characterized (Saunders et al., 2007). The main aim isn't to offer conclusive answers to questions of the research, but rather to investigate the topic of the research to lowest point.

Explanatory study is to clarify and account for the descriptive data. The aim of this study is to answer why and how questions, while descriptive studies address what types of inquiries (Grey, 2014). Explanatory research seeks out causes and explanations, as well as data to support or contradict a theory or prediction.

The current study attempts to identify remote working and job productivity, as well as psychological detachment as a mediator between these two social phenomena. The study involved the giving out of background information as well as a thought-provoking explanation of the subject matter. As a result, the explanatory approach is the most appropriate study goal.

3.3 Population

The whole set of cases from which a sample is collected for a research project is referred to as the research population (Saunders et al., 2007). The population of a research constitute a whole group or category of people among whom samples will selected (Coolican, 2014). The target population is the unit of study for which inferences of the data from the study will be made. The estimated population was 532 respondents. This means that the outcome of the research will be generalized to this unit Employees from the five selected MMDAs in Ghana's Local Government Service, namely Sekyere Afram Plains District Assembly, Juabeng Municipal Assembly, Ejisu Municipal Assembly, Ahafo Ano North, and Oforikroom Municipal Assembly, were included in this study.

3.4 Sampling Size and Sampling Technique

This section of the study looked at the sampling technique and sample size adopted. It gives the explanations to the techniques used and how these helped shape the current study.

3.4.1 Sampling Technique

When doing research, there are a variety of sample approaches to select from. The two categories of sampling strategies, according to Saunders et al. (2000), are non-probability and probability. A probability sampling approach is one in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate in the research, whereas a non-probability sampling strategy is one in which the likelihood of being chosen is unknown. It is "the theoretical organization that demarcates the borders within which a research is conducted and defines the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data" (Kothari, 2004). The researcher used a probability sampling strategy for this study, which allows the researcher to set the likelihood that each sampling unit would have an equal chance of being included in the sample. This study employed the systematic sampling approach, which entails picking the Kth sampling unit of the population after the first sampling unit is chosen at random from the total sample unit. That is, by utilizing random numbers to select the unit with which to begin, an element of unpredictability is added into this type of sampling. K=N/n is the systematic sampling interval, N is the population size, and n is the sample size, where K is the systematic sampling interval, N is the population size, and n is the sample size (Black 2004).

3.4.2 Sample Size

A sample size is defined as the number of sample units or units of analysis that constitute a sample, which determines the number of questionnaires to be sent in order to collect the necessary data for analysis (Kumekpor, 2002). The sample size is heavily influenced by the size of the population from which the researcher draws his sample (Colin et al., 2007). The sample size was calculated employing Yamane's (1967) general formula n= - - where n is the sample size, N is the

estimated population and e is margin of error (0.05) n=1+S32^^00S^2

n= 229

As a result, the study's sample size will be 229 respondents drawn from the Ashanti Region's designated MMDAs.

3.5 Sources of Data

Data collection is extremely important and among the most fundamental stages in carrying out a study. Data collections starts with finding out what category of data is required for conducting your study. Normally, data can be gathered from the two main sources which are the Primary and Secondary.

This study employed a cross-sectional study to better understand the issue from the perspectives of senior and junior personnel in several Ashanti Region MMDAs. Because comprehensive comprehension of a phenomena depends on choosing the best feasible instance, the first criterion in selecting a case was to maximize what could learnt, based on the study's goal (Yin, 2009). Because this was an explanatory study, using a research data collecting approach that could be employed in the study to arrive at answers to the research questions was convenient. Primary data was used in this study.

3.5.1 Primary Data

Primary data, as defined by Saunders et al. (2007), is data obtained particularly for the study project at hand. It is the most authentic and dependable, regardless of the difficulties in gathering data. The core data for the study was acquired using questionnaires that mostly consisted of closed- ended questions that were ranked on a Likert scale. It was given to a variety of senior and junior staff members.

3.6 Data Collection

Concerning how data was collected and the instruments utilized to help the researcher achieve the research's varied goals was discussed at this section. According to the UNICEF Office of Research (2014), all forms of assessment need well-chosen and well-implemented data collecting and analysis procedures.

3.6.1 Questionnaire

Data collection instruments are measurement equipment that are meant to help a researcher collect data on a particular topic. The tool for gathering the data is the questionnaire. Questionnaire often make use of checklist and ratings; the scale help simplify and quantify behaviors and attitudes Leedy and Ormrod (2001). The questionnaire is both paper-based and digital based. The digital questionnaire will utilize the KoBoCollect Android App. The questions used will be both open- ended and close-ended. The open-ended questions will offer the respondent opportunity towards answering the questions based on his experience or knowledge without an iota of restriction. The close-ended questions will restrict the respondent to the answers considered by the researcher. A likert-type scale was used in the questionnaire. The five categories on the likert scale were 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3-uncertain, 4=disagree, and 5=strongly disagree. Borg & Gall (1983) found it to be popular, easy to construct, administer and score. One of the main advantages of employing questionnaires in a likert scale was that, it provided a uniform information, which assured the comparability of data. Questionnaires were used since they protected the respondents' confidentially while also saving time and reducing biasing error. The questionnaires were handed to the respondents, who were given enough time to complete them. Despite this, the responder may occasionally supply responses that differ from those provided by the researcher.

3.7 Measures

The productivity scale measures the perception of employees as it refers to how remote work has resulted in improved outcomes or outputs, remote work has caused a complete improvement in productivity, Remote work has given rise to a better positioning for business, increased individual capacity to manage a growing volume of activity, using Internal Collaboration tools (Google docs, Dropbox, Doc Sharing) to perform my work, I use Video Conference (Skype, WebEx, other) to get in contact with my team and how remote work has improved business processes. This scale was adapted using a sub-scale, developed originally by McLean and DeLone as part of there IS Model (1992). six items were adapted to our scale in order to measure productivity. The scale reliability (Cronbach a) was .891and higher than .7 as recommended to meet scale reliability requirements.

The psychological detachment framework by sonnentag, 2014 (stressor-detachment model) measures the views of employees as it refers to how employees are to able to forget about work during after work hours, don't think about work at all after work hours, distances myself from work after work hours and take a break from the demands of work after work hours. The scale reliability (Cronbach a) was .862 and higher than .7 as recommended to meet scale reliability requirements.

A nine-item scale developed by (Thorstensson, 2020) which was originally developed by (Katz and Kahn 1966) socio-technical framework was used to measure remote work. Sample items are “I have the ability, willingness, and inner motivation to work remotely,” “Remote working ensures flexibility to balance the work & life,” and “I always communicate with other people remotely for my work,” “I use internet technology to do my work as much as possible,” “I have the ability to work and finish a task without interruptions while working remotely,” “There is availability of technical and logistic support,” “Suitability and availability of work space at home,” “Less sick leave when I work remotely,” “I apply conventional office hours at home as a structure and as a benchmark” The scale's reliability in this study is .909. and is higher than .7 as recommended to meet scale reliability requirements.

In all the scales response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) 2 (disagree) 3 (neutral) 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree).

3.8 Data Reliability and Validity

According to Brickman and Rog (2009), an upright question is one that produce responses that are valid measurements of whatever we're trying to explain.

The reliability test is a method of determining the degree to which data is error-free and so produces trustworthy findings. According to Fink and Kosecoff (1998) When it is been established that a study is the best technique for obtaining data, it's time to think about the content or subjects that will be covered. The reliability test is conducted before the pilot testing and it should be 0.7 or more. The researcher will proceed to gather the rest of the data from the sample once the pilot testing in this study has proven that the test result was over 0.7. One goal of this test for the study was to ensure that the work was legitimate and significant. One method to do this is to make the questionnaire as short, straightforward, clear, and familiar to the respondents as possible in order to increase accuracy and decrease biases. The study's content validity was attained since the study's questions accurately reflected this same subject under study. Because the scales were developed using available literature and so include items that have already been validated for measuring similar concepts and assessed through case studies, as well as the questionnaire being pre-tested by several researchers like as (Sonnentag., 2007, Susilo, Donny, 2020 Azimov, 2020, Arrowsmith et al, 2000).

3.9 Ethics

Research, like many other fields, is fraught with ethical difficulties, and it's critical that researchers devise a strategy for dealing with them. Researchers must safeguard their participants, build trust, defend against misbehavior and impropriety, and maintain the research's integrity since research entails gathering data and opinions on individuals and institutions (Israel & Hay, 2006). According to Creswell (2009), ethical concerns apply to all forms of research and at all stages of the process. The researcher in this present study obtained the consent of the administrator before carrying out the investigation in order to attain the above-mentioned aims. Furthermore, the participants also weren't forced to partake in the research, and the researcher assured them that any information they provided would be kept private, as well as taking steps to protect their disclosures. Again, the researcher has recognized the contributions of prior writers whose works have been cited in this paper to the maximum extent possible.

3.10 Organisational Profile

There are three levels of governance in Ghana; national, regional and local level. The district level giovernanace is made up of the Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs). The MMDAs constitute the local government unit at the District level. The MMDAs forms part of the local Governement Service .

3.10.1 Local Government Service

In line with article 240 (2) (d) of the 1992 constitution, the Local Government Service (LGS) was established by Act 656 (Date of Assent: 24th December, 2003, and published in the Gazette on 31st December, 2003) to ensure the effective operation of the District Assemblies. Despite this stipulation, the establishment of the local government service took eleven years.

However, it took another five years for parliament to enact the service's operating instrument (LI 1961). The Local Government Service Act of 2003, which created the basis for administration decentralization and allocated duties and human resources from central agencies to the district level, was passed by L.I. 1961.

The membership of the Local Government Service comprises persons holding non-elective public office in the;

I. Regional Co-ordinating Councils (RCC)
II. Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs)
III. Sub Metropolitan District Councils and UTZA Councils
IV. Secretariat of the Service and
V. Such other persons as may be employed for the Service

3.10.2 Local Government Service Vision

To be a world-class, decentralized and client oriented service

3.10.3 Local Government Service Mission

The service exists to “to support Local Government to deliver value for money service through the mobilization, harmonization and utilization of qualified, human capacity and material resources to promote local and national development”

3.10.4 Local Government Service (Services)

The Local Government Service Act of 2016 establishes the Local Government Service as a public entity (Act 936). The Local Government Service's responsibilities include providing technical assistance to RCCs and MMDAs to help them perform their functions more effectively, conducting organizational and job analyses for RCCs and MMDAs, conducting management audits for RCCs and MMDAs to improve overall service management, and designing and coordinating management systems and processes for RCCs and MMDAs.

3.11 Case Selection

Due to the issues that arose during the pandemic, workers from the Local Government Service (MMDAs) were required to work remotely in order to continue providing services to the communities. Some employees were allowed to work remotely, even from home, while others were required to work in shifts. The Local Government Service (MMDAs) was chosen for this research because it's among the first to begin working remotely or from home, and they will be extremely useful in addressing concerns about remote work. It will assist us in gathering reliable data that will allow us to form conclusions about how remote working has impacted productivity, whether favorably or negatively.

3.12 Conclusion

The chapter three of the study will provide a guide into how the researcher will collect the data for the study and focus on testing the various statistical tools based on the variables and various research questions that will be answered. It will be an introduction into the next set of activities in the chapter four of the study.

CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

The chapter presents data with an analysis of the results. The results are presented on the impact of remote work on productivity: mediating role of psychological detachment. The data was gathered through the use of questionnaires designed to meet the objectives of the study. The aim was to collect data from 229 respondents. However, only 222 data were collected from respondents, accounting for 96.9% of the total respondents were able to complete the questionnaire and generate useful information. This percentage is in line with Bailey's (2000) assertion that a response rate of 50.0% is appropriate, while a response rate of more than 70% is great. Based on this assertion, 96.9% response rate is ideal. SPSS version 22 was utilized to analyze the data.

4.2 Profile of respondents

This section describes the socio-demographic background of the respondents. The variables under this section include gender, age, marital status, educational level, length of service, and the number of working hours.

As per Table 4.1, 139 of the 222 respondents were males, accounting for 62.6% of the total, while the remaining 83 were females, accounting for 37.4% of the total. This indicates that the sample was not biased towards either male or female, and thus the response is representative of the whole population. The implication is that in terms of the gender distribution of some selected MMDAs, most of the employees are males. The respondents were asked to specify their age ranges, and 103 of them, representing 46.4% of the total, said they were between the ages of 20 and 30 years. 91 of the respondents, accounting for 41.0% of the total, were between the ages of 31 and 40 years. 18 of the respondents, accounting for 8.1% of the total, were between the ages of 41 and 50 years, 9 of the respondents, accounting for 4.1% of the total, were between the ages of 51 and 60 years and 1 of the respondents, accounting for 0.5% was between the ages of 61 years and above. As per this information, all the respondents were of sound age to understand and fill the questionnaire correctly. The findings could be likened to the view that activities of the organization require persons who are matured and considered responsible. In this regard, there is the likelihood of hiring persons who are mature to ensure work activities of the Local Government Service are responsibly carried out.

With regards to the marital status of respondents, 126 of the respondents constituting the majority were single representing a percentage of 56.8% whereas 86 of the respondents indicated that they were married having a total percentage of 38.7%. However, 3 respondents indicated being divorced/separated, having a percentage of 1.4% and 7 respondents indicated being widowed, having a percentage of 3.2%. This is a reflection of the fact that the majority of the respondents in the organization utilized for the study are single.

Next, the respondents were asked to state their level of education, of which 36 of the 222 respondents said they had diplomas/HND accounting for 16.2% of the total. 118 of the respondents accounting for 53.2% of the respondents said they had Bachelor's degrees and finally 68 of the respondents accounting for 30.6% of the respondents indicated they had Master's degrees. From the data above, it means that all the respondents were knowledgeable enough to understand what was being asked, think critically about the question and provide an appropriate response. The finding is a reflection of the fact that in Ghana, tertiary education is a significant requirement when seeking for job and this is much evident in the finding.

The respondents were asked to specify how long they had been working with the organization. 115 respondents accounting for 51.8% of the total said they had been working with the organization less than five years, 60 respondents accounting for 27.0% of the respondents indicated that they had been working with the organization for between 5 and 10 years, while 27 of the respondents accounting for 12.2% of the respondents indicated they had been working with the organization between 11 and 15 years, 14 of the respondents accounting for 6.3% of the respondents said they had been working with the organization for 16 and 30 years and 6 of the respondents accounting for 2.7% of the respondents said they had been working with the organization for 30 years and above. This also shows that most of the respondents have been working with the organization long enough to understand the effect of variables in the organization and provide appropriate responses to the measurement items. The results also suggest that on a relative basis, the working experience of employees is relatively moderate, showing that the majority of them have been employees for quite a moderate period.

Finally, indication of working hours within the otganisation of respondents were asked.

9 respondents accounting for 4.1 % of the total said they had been working with the organization for between 1 and 3 hours, while 42 respondents accounting for 18.9% of the respondents specified they have been working with the institution for between 4 and 7 hours and 171 of the respondents accounting for 77.0% of the respondents indicated they had been working with the organization between 8 and 12 hours. This shows that most of the respondents have been working with the organization within the normal working hours quoted in the labor law which is a remnant of the industrial age. The results also suggest that on a relative basis, the hours of work of employees are relatively moderate, showing that the majority of them have been working within the actual hours stipulated by the labor law.

Table 1. Socio-demographic Details of Respondents

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Source: Field Survey (2021)

4.3 Measurement of Issues

This section conducts various reliability and inferential analyses to determine the relationship among the variables considered in the current study. As a result, Pearson's correlation analysis and reliability analysis were carried out in this section. In other to establish the validity of the construct meausrements, the researcher conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to achieve that.

4.3.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The confirmatory factor analysis measurement model was estimated using AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structures) software v26.0, a covariance-based structural equation modeling technique using the maximum likelihood estimation approah.

The results in Table 2. below shows that all the observed variables under psychological detachment were statistically significant. The study therefore concludes that all the 4 dimensions were relevant in constructing psychological detachment in the organization.

The results also show that all the observed variables under productivity were statistically significant. The study therefore concludes that all the 6 dimensions were relevant in constructing employee's productivity in the organization.

Finally, the results show that all the variables under remote working were statistically significant. The study therefore concludes that the 9 dimensions were relevant in constructing remote working concept in the organization.

Table 2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: Field Survey (2021) (p = < 0.01, ***)

4.3.2 Goodness of Fit Indices

Many studies on CFA have classified essential fit indices in CFA into absolute fit indices, parsimony correction indices and comparative fit indices (e.g., Kline, 2005; Brown, 2006). It is emphasized that the reliance on only one class provides inadequate good-fitness of a model. Thus, this study employs the chi-square, chi-square within degree of freedom (chi2/df), and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) as parsimony correction index to test the degree to which the model fits reasonably well in the population; and comparative fit index (CFI) and non-normed fit index (NNFI) as comparative fit indices. The various measurement levels in Table 3. were confirmed on the basis of the recommended acceptable model fit. Much emphasis was not accorded the significance of the chi-square due to its high sensitivity to sample size. However, the estimated model in this study met the required chi-square within degree of freedom (chi2/df) of less or equal to 3. The RMSEA value of the estimated models was also less than 0.1. The comparative indices of the estimated models were also within the acceptable threshold of 0.95 or more.

Table 3. Goodness of Fit Indices

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Source: Field Survey (2021)

4.3.3 Reliability Test

This section contains information about the reliability test performed to determine if the data obtained could be trusted to provide the same and accurate information when performed again in a different scenario. Reliability, as per Golafshani (2003), assess how effectively a method, test, or construct measure what it was designed to measure. As a result, this part includes a reliability evaluation of the study's constructs. The method chosen for the reliability test was Cronbach alpha. Under the Cronbach alpha, for a construct to be considered reliable and valid, the construct must have a Cronbach alpha score of 0.7 and above. Any construct with a score below 0.7 is considered unreliable, and thus 1 or 2 items measuring the construct must be removed from the construct to make the construct valid and reliable. The results from the reliability and validity test are provided below.

Table 4. Reliability test

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Source: Field Survey (2021)

The psychological detachment has a Cronbach alpha score of 0.862, productivity has a Cronbach alpha of 0.891 and remote work has a Cronbach alpha of 0.909. In all, the Cronbach alpha test was performed on 3 constructs within the study, and all of them had scores greater than 0.7, indicating that they are all reliable and valid and can be trusted to provide the same result if the study were performed again under the same circumstances.

4.3.4 Correlation Table

This section looks at how the variables within the study are correlated, and the brawn of the association among the variables. Thus, a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to determine how Remote Work and Psychological Detachment correlate with Productivity. The interpretation of the correlation coefficient was done using the following rule of thumb: .70 to 1.0 is a high correlation; .50 to .70 is a moderate correlation; .30 to .50 is a low correlation, and .00 to .30 is a weak correlation (Mukaka, 2012).

From the table, gender negatively and insignificantly correlates with remote work, productivity but positively and insignificantly correlate with psychological detachment (r = . -.075, -.057, .100, p > 0.01), marital status positively and significantly correlates with remote work but negatively correlates with pyschological detachment and productivity which all relationships are significant (r = . 137, -.114, -.064 p < 0.01), age negatively and insignificantly correlates with remote work (r = -.057, -.032, -.045, p > 0.01), level of education positively and insignificantly correlates with remote work and productivity but negatively correlates with psychological detachment which all relationships are insignificant (r = .157, .132, -.019, p > 0.01), length of service positively and insignificantly correlates with remote work and productivity but negatively and insignificantly correlates psychological detachment (r = .888, .082, -.072 p > 0.01), working hours positively and insignificantly correlates with remote work and productivity but negatively and insignificantly correlates with psychological detachment (r = .172, .156, -.030, p > 0.01).

When Remote Work was correlated with Psychological Detachment, the results obtained were weakly negative but insignificant (r = -0.056, p > 0.01). Remote Work was however highly positive and significantly associated with Productivity (r = 0.784, p < 0.01). Similarly, the correlations between Psychological Detachment and Productivity were positive but insignificant (r = .059, p > 0.01).

Table 5. Correlation Analysis between Remote Work, Psychological Detachment and Productivity

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Source: Field Survey (2021)

4.4 Description result on Remote Work, Psychological Detachment and Productivity

This section analyzes respondents' views on items concerning Remote Work, Psychological Detachment, and Productivity in detail. It gives a composite interpretation of the responses from respondents. Respondents were given questionnaires on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 indicating Strongly Disagree and 5 indicating Strongly Agree. The magnitude agreement on each leadership construct was determined using mean and standard deviation scores which were interpreted as follows: 1.00 - 1.44 (Strongly Disagree); 1.45 - 2.44 (Disagree); 2.45 - 3.44 (Neither agree nor disagree); 3.45 - 4.44 (Agree); 4.45 - 5.00 (Strongly Agree). The results are summarized in Table 4.4

4.4.1 Remote Work

Remote work practices within the organizations were ascertained. The results are summarized in Table 6.

For constructs measuring remote work in this study, the results showed that employees have the ability, willingness, and inner motivation to work remotely (Mean = 3.89, SD = 0.918) This average score suggests that though there existed greater disparities in the views shared, major respondents sampled on average had the view that, they have the ability, willingness, and inner motivation to work remotely.

From the results also, it was identified that an average majority of the sampled respondents were convinced that there is some flexibility to balance the work and family life when working remotely

(Mean = 3.87, SD = 0.954) however, the standard deviation score implies that though respondents were certain, there were higher differences in the level of agreement shared among respondents concerning this statement, Similarly, in analyzing whether employees always communicate with other people remotely for my work the data suggested that with greater disparities, however, on average most of them were convinced (Mean = 3.79, SD = .962), the use of internet technology to do my work as much as possible for measuring remote work also recorded (Mean = 4.00, SD = .942) and it was identified that an average majority of the sampled respondents were convinced that internet technology was used , employees have the ability to work and finish a task without interruptions while working remotely (Mean = 3.59, SD = 1.063) and it was identified that an average majority of the sampled respondents were convinced with this statement, There is availability of technical and logistic support (Mean = 3.41, SD = 1.037), Suitability and availability of work space at home (Mean = 3.46, SD = 1.053).

Moreover, the next item measured was whether the was Less sick leave when work is done remotely. A mean score of 3.65 and an associated standard deviation score of 1.045 was established. These imply that though a majority of the sampled respondents on average shared a certain opinion, there were other disparities in such opinions held. With “employees apply conventional office hours at home as a structure and as a benchmark”, a mean score of 3.30 was observed. It could be deduced therefore that again, sampled respondents were on average, certain. The differences in their responses varied not greatly based on a standard deviation score of 1.086.

Table 6. Descriptive Analysis of Remote Work

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Source: Field Survey (2021)

4.4.2 Productivity

This section analyses Productivity in the sampled MMDAs as shown in Table 7. The first item measured under Productivity was “Remote work has caused a complete improvement in productivity” and recorded Mean = 3.52; SD = 1.019. This average score suggests that though there existed less greater disparities in the views shared, the majority of the sampled respondents on average are of the view that they are certain of their Assembly being productive as a result of remote work.

From the results also, it was identified that an average majority of the sampled respondents were convinced that their Assembly Working Remotely has resulted in improved outcomes or outputs

(Mean = 3.60; SD = .987). However, the standard deviation score implies that though respondents were certain, there were lower differences in the level of agreement shared among respondents concerning this statement.

Likewise, in analyzing whether their MMDAs working remotely has caused an increase in volume to manage a growing volume of activity, the data suggested that with greater disparities, however, on average most of them were convinced (Mean = 3.68, SD = .972). Moreover, the next item measured was Remote work has given rise to a better positioning for business. A mean score of 3.64 and an associated standard deviation score of .991 was established. These imply that though a majority of the sampled respondents on average shared a certain opinion, there were less greater disparities in such opinions held.

Additionally, for the statement, “I use Internal Collaboration tools (Google docs, Dropbox, Doc Sharing) to perform my work” measuring productivity, 3.73 mean score was identified. While a standard deviation score of 1.011 was established. As noted, the results suggest that though there was a general certainty among an average majority of the sampled respondents, there were relatively greater variations in their responses. Again, the statement: “I use Video Conference (Skype, WebEx, other) to get in contact with my team” used in measuring productivity scored a mean of 3.53. The standard deviation score was found to be 1.144. From these statistics, it could be argued that an average majority of the sampled respondents were convinced but had a higher differing view concerning the statement.

Table 7. Descriptive Analysis of Productivity

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Source: Field Survey (2021)

4.4.2 Psychological Detachment

In this section, various psychological detachment constructs were measured and analyzed. Psychological detachment was measured using four questions. The results are summarized in Table 8. The results were interpreted using the following dimensions: 1.00 - 2.00 (Strongly Disagree); 2.01 - 3.01 (Disagree); 3.02 - 4.01 (Neutral); 4.02 - 5.01 (Agree); 5.02 - 6.01 (Strongly Agree).

First, the study analyzed “During after-work hours I am able to forget about work” among sampled respondents. A mean score of 2.64 (SD = 1.250) was determined for forgetting about work when respondents done with work hours. The standard deviation score above 1.00 suggests that there exists a higher disparity in terms of the responses shared by respondents although an average majority of the respondents disagreed. Similarly, evidence reveals that on average, a majority of the respondents who participated in this study share the view that they disagree with the statement that “During after-work hours I don't think about work at all” (M = 2.38). Yet, the standard deviation score of 1.158 implies that there exists higher variation in respondents' responses.

Moreover, it was found that an average value of 2.71 (SD = 1.188) was observed for sampled respondents taking a break from the demands of work during after-work hours. This explains that there is a general disagreement among respondents despite the higher disparities suggested by the standard deviation score.

Table 8. Descriptive Analysis of Psychological detachment

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Source: Field Survey (2021)

4.5 Hypothesis Testing

The analysis emplyeed in this section to examine the effect of the independent variables (Remote Work) on the dependent variable (Productivity) and the mediating role of Psychological Detachment on the nexus between the remote work and productivity was the regression analysis.

4.5.1 Effect of Psychological detachment on Productivity

Table 9 shows a two-step regression analysis of the effect of psychological detachment on productivity. Model 1 includes sociodemographic predictors including sex, age, educational level, marital status, length of work, and hours of work. While model 2 Psychological Detachment factors. Psychological detachment was measured by means of four constructs. These included the During after-work hours I am able to forget about work, during after-work hours I don't think about work at all, during after-work hours I distance myself from work and during after-work hours I take a break from the demands of work. Productivity was regressed on these psychological detachments' constructs.

As shown in Table 4.7 below, among the demographic variables including sex; age; marital status; educational level; length of work; and hours of work, it can be deduced that holding demographics as constant variables, psychological detachment are not predictors of productivity (p > 0.05). This shows that the fluctuations in productivity are not affected by the characteristics of employees in terms of their sociodemographic.

After holding the influence of sociodemographic variables constant, the effect of psychological detachment on productivity was carried out. The results in model 2 revealed that psychological detachment is positively associated with productivity. However, the association was insignificant.

Table 9. Regression Analysis of the Effect of psychological detachment on productivity

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Source: Field Survey (2021); Dependent variable: Productivity

4.5.2 The impact of Remote work on Productivity

Table 10 shows a two-step regression analysis of the effect of remote work on productivity. Model 1 includes sociodemographic predictors including sex, age, educational level, marital status, length of work, and hours of work. While model 2 includes remote work factors. Productivity was regressed on the remote work constructs.

As shown in Table 10 below, among the demographic variables including sex, age, marital status, educational level, length of work, and hours of work are predictors of Productivity (p > 0.05). This shows that productivity was affected by the characteristics of employees in terms of their sociodemographic.

After holding the influence of sociodemographic variables constant, the effect of remote on productivity was carried out. The results in model 2 revealed that remote work is positively associated with productivity. However, the association was also significant (p > 0.05).

Table 10. Regression Analysis of the Effect of Remote work on productivity

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Source: Field Survey (2021); Dependent variable: Productivity

4.5.3 The relationship between of Remote work and psychological detachment

Table 11 shows a two-step regression analysis of the effect of remote work on psychological detachment. Model 1 includes sociodemographic predictors including sex, age, educational level, marital status, length of work, and hours of work. While model 2 remote work constructs. Remote work was measured using 9 constructs. Psychological detachment was regressed on these remote work constructs.

As shown in Table 11 below, among the demographic variables including sex, age, marital status, educational level, length of work, and hours of work are not predictors of psychological detachment (p > 0.05). This shows that the psychological detachments are not affected by the characteristics of employees in terms of their sociodemographic.

After holding the influence of sociodemographic variables constant, the effect of remote work on psychological detachment was carried out. The results in model 2 revealed that remote work is negatively associated with psychological detachment. Therefore, the association remained insignificant (p > 0.05).

Table 11. Regression Analysis of the Effect of Remote work on psychological detachment

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Source: Field Survey (2021); Dependent variable: psychological detachment

4.5.4 Mediating role of psychological detachment on the relationship between remote work and productivity

The researcher tested the mediation models using the PROCESS macro model 4 (Hayes, 2013) with 5000 bootstraps for Hypothesis 4. The test was made possible using Andrew Hayes process macro. The predictor variable was Remote Work, the outcome variable was Productivity and the mediator variable was Psychological Detachment. Table 12 presents results of the mediation analysis.

Table 12. The linear regression effect of remote work on psychological detachment, psychological detachment and productivity and remote work and productivity.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: Field Survey (2021)

The path from remote work to psychological detachment was negative and insignificant (b=-.1133, s.e.=.0903, p=.9099), indicating that employees who work remotely are not influenced to detach psychologically from work. The path from psychological detachment to productivity was positive and insignificant (b=.0517, s.e.=.0334, p=.1229), indicating that employees who score high on psychological detachment are more likely not to be productive than employees who score low on the same variable. The direct effect from remote work to productivity was positive and significant (b=.8422, s.e.= .0447, p=.0000), indicating that employees who score high on remote work are more likely to be productive than employees who score low on the same variable.

Table 13. Mediating role of psychological detachment on the impact of remote work on productivity

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

As shown in Table 12, the direct effect of Remote Work on Productivity was statistically significant (B = 0.842, Boot 95% CI =0.753, 0.930, p = 0.000). This implies that when the mediator variable (Psychological Detachment) is controlled, Remote Work is a significant predictor of Productivity with an effect size of 0.842, suggesting that every unit increase in Remote Work (controlling for Psychological Detachment) leads to 84.2% increase in productivity.

Further, when the mediator variable (Psychological Detachment) was introduced into the relationship, as shown in the indirect effect, the relationship was negative and statistically non­significant. Therefore, the impression of mediation was not affirmed by the confidence interval (CI) for the indirect effect, which did include zero (B = -0.0005, Boot 95% CI = -0.013, 0.018).

The indirect effect is tested using non-parametric bootstrapping. If the null of 0 falls between the lower and upper bound of the 95% confidence interval, then the inference is that the population indirect effect is 0. If 0 falls outside the confidence interval, then the indirect effect is inferred to be non-zero. In this case the indirect effect (IE=-.0005) is statistically insignificant: 95%CI= (­.0137,.0177).

The result indicated an insignificant degree of mediation and was not in line with the study hypothesis, psychological detachment remained an insignificant predictor of remote work for productivity. Overall, on the basis of the mediation analysis, the researcher concludes that there was an insignificant indirect effect of remote work on productive through psychological detachment.

4.6 Discussion of results

Because of the advancement of technology in the workplace, remote employment is becoming increasingly frequent (Caramela, 2017). As a result, the current study's goal was to look at the effects of remote work on productivity. The goal was to investigate the role of psychological detachment in mediating the link between remote work and productivity. As a consequence, this research sheds insights on current employee attitudes toward remote work as well as its effects.

The study is based on the factors that theory and prior research, suggest effect of remote work on productivity. It was theorized that remote work was a driver of productivity, and that psychological detachment mediated this effect. The results are mixed in the sense that some of the aspects theorized appear to be contradictory to another existent research.

First, and not surprisingly, psychological detachment did not have a direct effect on productivity and it did not mediate the relationship to productivity in any of the cases. This was in alignment with the outcomes of previous research (Eschleman et al., 2014; de Bloom et al., 2015; Headrick et al., 2019; Shimazu et al 2019; Fritz et al 2010). As hypothesized in previous studies, there is a negative relationship between psychological detachment and productivity indicating when productivity is a recurring feature of employee's output, the process of successfully unwinding from work during leisure time is more likely to successfully happen. previous literature showed a negative relation between these variables, suggesting that switching off mentally during off-job time did not improve productivity, but rather decreased it Shimazu et al (2019). When individuals are highly detached from their jobs during off-job time, they may feel difficulty in “switching on” again in the next morning (Fritz et al 2010), and they may need more time to mobilize their energy for their job, which results in impaired work productivity. However, despite the negative and significance of the correlation of psychological detachment with productivity, individually, when it comes to verify the effect of psychological detachment on the relationship between remote work and productivity, the effect is insignificantly more negative in correlation with the level of detachment increasing. Accepting previous literature, not only does psychological detachment fail to influence this relationship but actually negatively influences its impact.

Furthermore, following the studies which suggested the correlation of remote work with psychological detachment, it demonstrated its truth. Remote work negatively affected psychological detachment (Eschleman et al., 2014; de Bloom et al., 2015; Headrick et al., 2019) as it was foreseen inferring the diminution of productivity when psychological detachment is higher.

Moreover, the researcher found a confirmation in alignment with previous research, that remote work; the use of tools that are more pervasive in the current workplace, is a driver of productivity (Martinez-Amador, 2016). This may indicate that remote work is not enabling only the productivity, but is enabling the productivity of workforce that has the needs to communicate externally despite the work location. Following the studies which suggested the correlation of remote work with productivity, it demonstrated its truth. Some support for the linear relationship between remote work and productivity have been found in previous studies, signifying the point that workers who additionally work remotely are extra productive and pleased with their job (Dubrin, 1991; Guimaraes & Dallow, 1999) Accepting previous literature, not only does remote work influence this relationship but actually positively influences its impact. This is one of the ultimate outcomes that organizations and leaders are concerned about; the joint optimization of the socio-technical resources across the enterprise.

Moreover, Psychological detachment was considered a mediator of the relationship between remote work and productivity. The results of this study showed that psychological detachment did not mediate the relationship between remote work and productivity. Previous studies using psychological detachment as a mediator (Sonnentag et al, 2010) employed a variety of remote work and productivity metrics, but all used the same psychological detachment measure. Regardless of whether mediation was explored, the detachment measure was given to the participants in the same way. Despite the fact that psychological detachment was inherent in the characteristics of remote work, none of those research indicated the possibility of an alternate paradigm (sonnentag et al, 2010).

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The findings are summarized in this chapter. The chapter is structured into three (3) main sections. In section one, a summary of the results is highlighted. A conclusion based on the study's results is indicated after section one. The final section offers recommendations for further organizational research and policy.

5.2 Summary of the Main Findings

This section offers a summary of the results. Based on the objectives of the study, the summary were made.

5.2.1 Impact of psychological detachment on productivity

Initial goal of the study was to see how psychological detachment affected productivity. Four questions were used to measure and analyze various psychological detachments constructs: I am able to forget about work during after-work hours, I don't think about work at all during after-work hours, I distance myself from work during after-work hours, and I take a break from the demands of work during after-work hours. Employees of the various MMDAs take a break from the demands of work after work hours, according to the findings of the study. Psychological detachment has no effect on productivity to be precised.

5.2.2 Relationship between remote work and productivity

Second, the researcher investigated the link between remote work and productivity. Employees of the different MMDAs work using internet technologies. Employees, on the other hand, have the capacity, inclination, and inner incentive to work remotely, according to the study's findings. The study's findings led to the conclusion that remote work is positively associated with productivity and that the association is significant.

5.2.3 Relationship between remote work and psychological detachment

In addition, the link between remote work and psychological detachment was investigated. A correlation study was conducted to see how remote work and psychological detachment were linked to productivity. Remote work was shown to have no significant link to psychological detachment. After regressing remote work on psychological detachment, it was determined that psychological detachment was neither advantageous nor relevant in impacting productivity.

5.2.4 Mediating role of psychological detachment in the relationship between remote work and productivity

A mediating test was also conducted with the aid of Andrew Hayes process macro to see if remote work mediated by psychological detachment were linked to productivity. Remote work was found to be substantially linked to productivity. Productivity was shown to have no significant relationship with psychological detachment. After regressing productivity on remote work and mediated by psychological detachment, it was revealed that remote work was positive and extremely crucial in affecting productivity but psychological detachemnt negatively affect the relationship. Similarly, remote work significantly increased productivity.

5.2 Conclusion

Investigating the impact of remote work on productivity was the main aim of this study. Out of the main goal of the study, four key objectives were derieved; impact of psychological detachment on productivity, the relationship between remote work and productivity, the relation between remote work and psychological detachment and lastly, the mediating role of psychological detahment on the relationship between remote work and productivity. Several literature were reviewed but among them that were key to this study were; Sonnentag et. al, 2020, Thorstensson, 2020 and Darley, 2017. A quantitative research methodology was adopted in this study using the systematic sampling techniques to investigate the impact of remote work on productivity.

Results suggested that engaging in remote work increases productivity. The volume of remote work grows, so does productivity, and there is no threshold at which productivity declines as previously hypothesized to be precise. This was an interesting finding which indicate that being highly productive does not necessarily mean working on-site. Organisations will be productive when remote workers prefers and enjoy working remotely.

Psychological detachment was also looked into as a possible mediator. The findings imply that workers who work from home have no psychological detachment, which leads to greater satisfaction with their work and increased productivity. Conversly, when employees are forced to work while they have not fully recuperated it will be detrimental to the productivity of the organisation since they will be feeling of stress for working beyoud their working hours.

Furthermore, the findings suggest that people who work remotely have less work interruptions in their personal lives, which contributes to them being happier in the job. Employees who undertake remote work gladly do so more often, according to the findings, which leads to increased job satisfaction.

In conclusion, remote work may help employees by allowing them to work in a more independent atmosphere while also reducing work and family life stresses. As a result, the company's value may rise as a result of a satisfied staff. In general, the results of this study will aid future firms in deciding whether or not to engage in telecommuting programs.

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and a review of previous research, the following recommendations are suggested for present and future remote working of MMDAs in particular and other companies as a whole to ensure quality and efficient remote working.

5.3.1 Remote work in MMDAs

The study revealed that the main factors that cause remote work in the MMDAs were "using of internet technology'', ''motivation'' and ''flexibility to balance work and family life''. Therefore it is recommended that there is the need for the employer to take remote work seriously as it is a contributory factor for productivty. It was observed that remote work enhances productivity. There is therefore the need to emphasize the practice of remote work to enhance productivity of various MMDAs.

5.3.2 ICT utilization in MMDAs

The reseacher identified that utilization of the ICT Technology is enabling MMDAs to be more productive, and in some cases, employees expressed how much they enjoy having tools that make their day-to-day work easier and faster for example ; using Internal Collaboration tools (Google docs, Dropbox, Doc Sharing) to perform their work and Video Conferencing tools (Skype, WebEx, other) to get in contact with their teams. The reseacher identified ICT Working Tools as another source of positive energy impacting the productivity when working remotely. Therefore, the researcher recommend that there should be training and development programs for workers at various MMDAs and other organisation as a whole who are working remotely. The training should include both on-site and off-site training which will help workers to increase their knowledge and able to meet their set target leading to productivity.

5.3.3 Directions for further studies

This research took a quantitative approach and focused on a few MMDAs. This limits the study's ability to extrapolate its findings to other organizations. Furthermore, when compared to the present quantitative technique, the study's findings were unable to provide in-depth analysis. As a result, it's critical to use a qualitative approach in order to have a better understanding of the process underlying the outcomes. Furthermore, large-scale nationwide research including both government and commercial firms is required to improve comparisons and allow best practice and benchmarking. Lastly, future research might investigate into the effects of other personality types on job satisfaction and remote work, such as neuroticism and extroversion. Some individuals enjoy working remotely and enjoy the freedom it affords, whilst others may not feel comfortable combining work and home life and may be unhappy.

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APPENDIX I

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCE AND ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Dear Sir/Madam

My name is Solomon Sekyi, an MSc Management and Human Resource Strategy student of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. This study focuses on effect of remote work on productivity. Individual responses to this survey will be kept strictly confidential, and solely for academic purposes. For the purposes of improving the quality of the study, I humbly request you to take your time to read and understand the items on this instrument before you respond to them. Objective responses offered will be highly appreciated. Please read the instruction(s) under each section of the instrument to assist you in your responses.

Thank you so much for your willingness to participate in this study.

SECTION A: Psychological Detachment

Psychological Detachment refers to a state in which people mentally disconnect from work and do not think about job-related issues when they are away from their job.

Please tick (V) the appropriate box by showing the extent to which you agree or disagree with the statement

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

SECTION B: Productivity [Adapted from Martinez-Amador, 2016]

Please tick (V) the appropriate box by showing the extent to which you agree or disagree with the statement

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

SECTION D: Remote Working [ Adapted from Thorstensson, 2020 ]

Remote Work includes practices such as working at home, working at local satelite offices or telecenters, mobile or nomadic working, and teleworking which involves the use of information and communication technologies.

Please tick (V) the appropriate box by showing the extent to which you agree or disagree with the statement

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SECTION D: Firm Background & Respondent's Information

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APPENDIX: II

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