Impact of Prevailing Building Material Sector Transformation in Economic Development

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION

COPYRIGHT STATEMENT

DECLARATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
1.2. Problem statement
1.3. Research objectives
1.3.1 General objective
1.3.2 Specific objectives
1.4. Research questions
1.5. Research hypotheses
1.6. Significance of the study
1.7. Scope of the study

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Conceptual and theoretical perspectives
2.2. Brick sector transformation in developing countries and its economic and environment
2.2.1. A case of brick sector transformation in Vietnam
2.2.1.1 Partnership Vietnam – SDC
2.2.1.2 Social improvement upon sector transformation
2.2.1.3 Selective mechanization
2.2.1.4 Clean air for the workers
2.2.1.5 Soil depletion
2.2.1.6 CO2 emissions
2.2.1.7 Economic improvements: low-cost tunnel kiln
2.2.1.8 Economic improvements of the vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK)
2.2.1.9 Institutional improvements of the co-operation
2.2.1.10 Participatory state management
2.2.1.11 Enabling sustainable development
2.2.1.12 Working locally with a national impact
2.2.1.13 Capacity building
2.2.1.14 Basis for decision-making
2.2.1.15 Training activities
2.2 Overview of Urbanization and Housing Supply Need in Sub-Saharan Countries
2.2.1. Decent Housing as A Fundamental Right In Rwanda And Elsewhere
2.2.2. Urban Affordable Housing Demand in Sub-Saharan Countries and International Finance Corporation (IFC) Commitment to Address the Issue
2.2.3. Urban Development Situation In Tanzanian Cities And Impact To Economic Growth
2.3. Definition Of Key Concepts
2.3.1. Affordable house
2.3.2. Residential housing:
2.3.3. Informal Settlement
2.3.4. Industry facilitator
2.3.5. Secondary city
2.3.6. System of cities
2.3.7. Urbanisation:
2.3.8. Urban areas
2.3.9. Urban development
2.3.10. Urban expansion
2.3.11. Modern Bricks
2.4. Global overview on informal settlements
2.4.1. Transformation of unplanned settlement in Tanzanian Cities
2.4.2. Situation in Kigali city informal settlement
2.4.2.1 Context of Unplanned Settlement in the city of Kigali
2.4.2.2. Residents have low incomes and rent affordability is a concern
2.5. Integrated development program (IDP) model villages in Rwanda
2.5. General fired brick history
2.5. Fired brick history in Rwanda
2.6. Low carbon modern clay bricks towards the provision of a solution on housing supply
2.6. Housing typology and market trends in the city of Kigali
2.6.1. Housing Development and Market Trends in Kigali City
2.6.2. Housing typology in the city of Kigali
2.7. Housing affordability in African countries vis a vis Rwanda
2.8. Industry facilitator’s role in industry supply chain development
2.8.1. Creating new markets

CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGYY
3.1. Research Design
3.2. Data collection
3.2.1. Primary data
3.2.1.1. Questionnaire
3.2.1.2. Interview
3.2.2. Secondary data
3.2.2.1. Documentation
3.2.2.2. Study population
3.2.2.3. Sample size and sampling technique
3.2.3. Data analysis
3.2.3.1. Data processing
3.2.3.2 Editing
3.2.3.4 Coding
3.2.3.5 Tabulation
3.2.3.6 Ethical consideration
3.2.3.7 Validity and Reliability of results

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Demographic analysis of respondents
4.2.1 Sex of the respondents
4.2.2 Age of the respondents
4.2.3. Education status of the respondents
4.3. Job creation through the PROECCO programme implementation from 2017-2021
4.4. Accelerate Urbanization to facilitate economic growth:To analyze the process of Rehousing program at Mpazi unplanned settlement through a participatory approach in collaboration of the City of Kigali, SKAT, and UNHABITAT.
4.5. Quality standard fulfillment about clay fired products in Rwanda
4.6. Skills development and transfer done by PROECCO from 2017-2021

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendations

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1. QUESTIONNAIRE

IMPACT OF PREVAILING BUILDING MATERIAL SECTOR TRANSFORMATION IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. A CASE STUDY OF CLAY FIRED BRICKS IN RWANDA

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the thesis entitled: “IMPACT OF PREVAILING BUILDING MATERIAL SECTOR TRANSFORMATION IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTA CASE STUDY OF CLAY FIRED BRICKS IN RWANDA.” Submitted by NZEYIMANA Ismael to the Université Privée Africaine Franco-Arabe (U.P.A.F.A.) for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in International Development under my direct supervision and guidance. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not to my knowledge been published or submitted in part or full for any other Degree of this or other University.

Supervisor

FRODOUARD MUHAYIMANA

Full Professor

COPYRIGHT STATEMENT

This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognize that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without the author’s prior consent.

NZEYIMANA Ismael

DEDICATION

To my late father KAREMERA MIRAJHI,

Mother MUKANYANGEZI KURUSUMU,

Wife and sisters,

Children and brothers

DECLARATION

I, NZEYIMANA Ismael, declare that this dissertation On Impact of Prevailing Building Material Sector Transformation in Economic Development. A Case Study of Clay Fired Bricks in Rwanda is my genuine research work done by myself and has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree. All sources of information have been specifically acknowledged by references with author(s) or institution(s) sources.

Signature…

Date: 1-April 2023

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This is my occasion to express my thanks to the Almighty God (Allah) for making this research project successful and for his guidance and protection throughout the life.

This is my great pleasure to express my sincere gratitude to the supervisor Prof. Dr. Frodouard MUHAYIMANA (PhD) for his valuable and excellent guidance and constant encouragement during this research work and study period.

Special thanks go to SKAT CONSULTING RWANDA ltd team for providing me with necessary data and facilities for the success of this research work.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family members especially my mother, brothers and sisters, wife MUKAMURENZI Amissa and lovely daughters ISHIMWE Fatwima Ismael and ISHIMWE Mariam Ismael for their wholehearted support, inspiration and encouragement during my academic career.

Thank you to service providers who took part in the study and for happily sharing your information and experiences.

Last not least, I would like to thank all the individuals who helped me directly and indirectly to make this study possible.

NZEYIMANA Ismael

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Conceptual Framework

Figure 2.2. Changes in planned and unplanned settelement areas in Arusha,Dodoma and Kigoma between 2005 to 2015 (percent of residential land area)

Figure 2.3. Map of Unplanned settlement in the city of Kigali

Figure 2.4 Median monthly income by education level in Kigali unplanned settlement

Figure 2.5: Karama IDP model village

Figure 2.6: Gishuro IDP model village

Figure 2.7: Horezo model Village

Figure 2.8:Kinigi IDP Model Village

Figure 2.9:Munini IDP Model Village

Figure 2.10: Flow chart on clay brick production

Figure 2.11: Map for Potential clay reserve in Rwanda

Transformation pillar specific objectives

Figure 4.1: Sex distribution of the respondents

Figure 4.2: Age distribution of respondents

Figure 4.3: Literacy status of respondents

Figure 4.4: Trend of direct labor in modern bricks

Figure 4.5: Mpazi unplanned settlement

Figure 4.6: Mpazi Settlement completed transformation

Figure 4.7: Mpazi settlement projected transformation

Figure 4.8: Inclusive neighborhood transformation process

Figure 4.9: Skills developed by SKAT

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Housing demand in Kigali city from 2012 to 2020.

Table 4.1: Labor creation 2017-2021

Table: 4.2: Certification status of industrial and Semi-industrial clay products in Rwanda.

Table 4.3: Variation of daily wage after trainings of service providers

ABSTRACT

The research untitled “ Impact Of Prevailing Building Material Sector Transformation In Economic Development with a Case Study Of Clay fired Brick In Rwanda ” was undertaken to investigate its contribution in the fulfillment of National Strategy for Transformation in its pillar of Economic transformation where activities of SKAT Consulting Rwanda applies in the Implementation of PROECCO programme ( Promoting Climate Responsive Building Material Production and Off farm Employment in the Great Lakes Region). This research revealed that the PROECCO contributed in the creation of jobs in the brick production from 2017-2021 with an exponential growth which was due to high demand of modern bricks caused by the adoption of Rwandan government to use modern bricks with Rowlock bond technology in Integrated Development program model villages construction and the adoption of a demonstrated model of PROECCO as solution to densification and the transformation of unplanned settlement through an inclusive way with citizens as key partners. In addition to that this research revealed that the skills developed by SKAT in the implementation of PROECCO are key to sustainable development of the sector and the modern bricks supply chain, this has played a vital role in improving the income level of service providers who gained from these trainings. With this approach, it makes PROECCO to be in line with the specific objective of developing a knowledge led economy. Regarding the status of certification in clay building materials produced in Rwandan semi and industrial brickyards, this research highlighted all existing products, their certification status and listed the standards to be developed. Briefly the implementation of PROECO project is in line with National strategy for transformation in its Economic pillar specific objectives.

CHAPTER I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

Since the emergency and recovery period that followed the Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994, Rwanda has achieved substantial socioeconomic progress, with economic growth rates among the fastest in the world coupled with substantial gains in poverty reduction. Growth across all sectors has been positive and resilient in the face of a slowing global economy. Signs of socio-economic transformation have emerged as the labor force moves from agriculture to higher productivity services and industry. (MINECOFIN,2017)

Rwanda adopted its Vision 2020 in the year 2000. Through a succession of poverty reduction and economic development strategies, Rwanda has developed the necessary policies and tools for attaining Vision 2020 aspirations, driven by visionary leadership, mutual trust in the society, self-belief, hard work of citizens, and support of partners. . (MINECOFIN,2017)

Development improved Rwandans’ livelihoods across the Nation. Life expectancy has increased from 49 in 2000 to 66.6 years in 2017. Poverty has reduced considerably from 60.4% in 2000 to 38.2% in 2016/2017 and extreme poverty reduced from 40% to 16% over the same period. Maternal and child health has improved significantly over the last two decades and exceeded MDGs ambitions. Maternal mortality reduced by 80% between 2000 and 2014 while infant and child mortality decreased by over 70% in the same period. Free universal basic education was initiated and scaled up to 12 years’ cycle. This resulted in net enrolment of nearly 100% in primary for both boys and girls. Gender parity was achieved with more girls than boys in primary school. (MINECOFIN,2017)

Vision 2020 ended at the close of the decade while EDPRS2 and its associated Sector Strategic Plans and District Development Strategies ended in June 2018. National development during the seven years, aligned to the mandate of His Excellency the President of Rwanda of 2017-2014are guided by the new Vision 2050 and the associated 2035 targets.

Vision 2050 aspires to take Rwanda to high living standards by the middle of the 21stcentury and high quality livelihoods. The implementation instrument for the remainder of Vision 2020 and for the first four years of Vision 2050 was put in the National Strategy for Transformation (NST1). NST1 will provide the foundation and vehicle towards Vision 2050. Specific priorities and strategies are presented in different pillars discussed below. Vision 2050 aspirations focuses on five broad priorities: High Quality and Standards of Life, Developing Modern Infrastructure and Livelihoods, Transformation for Prosperity, Values for Vision 2050, International cooperation and positioning (MINECOFIN,2017)

The research untitled “ Impact Of Prevailing Building Material Sector Transformation In Economic Development with a Case Study Of Clay fired Brick In Rwanda” is undertaken to investigate its contribution in the fulfillment of National Strategy for Transformation in its pillar of Economic transformation where activities of SKAT Consulting Rwanda applies in the Implementation of PROECCO programme (Promoting Climate Responsive Building Material Production and Off farm Employment in the Great Lakes Region).

The objective of this programme was to minimize the impact of building material production on environment and climate in the Great Lakes Region, and at the same time to improve the livelihoods and working conditions of tile and brickyard workers.

The PROECCO aims to support the creation of permanent non-agrarian jobs in rural block- and brickyards. The people targeted for this are the rural young, who are currently labouring seasonally in farm-side brickyards and innovative entrepreneurs willing to pioneer permanently operated building material production yards in urban and per urban areas.

The expected main results upon the phase out in 2024 (at the end of Rwandan president term of 2017-2024) of this programme is that investors and authorities along the value chain take informed decisions based on relevant key-information and expertise for transforming the sector into an inclusive industry for affordable building material supply (starting from the modern clay brick production to the affordable housing supply). Local supply chains for Modern Bricks made in Rwanda, Burundi and the Bukavu Zone established and prepared to scale and the demand for Modern Brick enables the sector to scale up (PROECCO,2016).

The National Urban Policy of 2008 developed by the Ministry of Infrastructure defines Rwanda as a landlocked country with a high population density facing problems that are caused by rapid urbanization such as scarcity of land, proliferation of unplanned settlements, and environmental degradation. (MININFRA Kigali, 2008).

In the forward of Building Prosperity, the former UN secretary general said: “Income generation is closely associated with housing; it includes payments to construction works and construction suppliers, as well as home-based activities, some of which are linked to the global chain of production. Housing makes a considerable contribution to the national economic development in a variety of ways, including increases in capital stock, fixed investment and savings. In addition, there are significant interactions with financial systems, through housing banks, mortgage schemes, interest rates and consumption of housing services.” (Anna Kajumulo Tibaijuka,2009).

In addition to that SKAT consulting in modern bricks construction systems revealed that the Construction costs in Rwanda are higher than in most other countries in Africa. This is mainly due to its land-locked geographic position and the resulting high transportation costs of imported material, namely of steel and cement. Rwanda’s abundant clay deposits are of excellent quality and the massive demand of the country’s fast-growing cities are fertile grounds for the construction industry to produce and build with Modern Brick Technologies. For several years Rwandan SME’s, with the support of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, have started to produce machine-made Modern Bricks that allow for the construction of smart and cost-effective buildings. These technologies have the potential to significantly reduce the cost of housing and construction and bring tens of thousands of jobs back to Rwanda that were lost to the foreign cement industry. (SKAT, 2017).

However, the urban growth in Rwanda is an inevitable and advantageous phenomenon as the cities will make possible the integrated development of rural and urban population. The cities constitute centers for job creation which must be opened to all the social categories. This employment results from the provision of services which develop rapidly in urban area including construction of infrastructure, houses etc. (MININFRA, 2008).

According to the Kigali city master plan the residents of this city were 1.3 million in 2018 while it is projected to be 3.7 million by 2050, this puts a pressure on the city to come up with a strategy of providing the residential housing solution to all social categories of population while considering the environment protection and all other aspects related to adequate standard of living. (SurbanaJurong Consultants Pte Ltd, 2020).

1.2. Problem statement

Rwanda’s population size is around 12.4 million people (est. 2018). Population growth is currently 2.4% per year. This factor combined with economic growth exert pressures on the country’s natural resources, most notably on the country’s waters, forests, lands and biodiversity. More than a third of Rwanda’s population live in poverty (38%) and inequality is high. There is a large difference between those with high access to resources (natural and monetary capital) and those with (very) limited access to resources. (SIDA, 2019)

Regarding urbanization, although Rwanda is amongst the least urbanized countries in the world, it is also one of the fastest urbanizing ones, with an annual urban growth rate of 4.5 %. In 1990, it was the least urbanized country in the east African Community countries. But by 2030 it will be one of the region’s most urbanized, with an estimated urbanization rate of 30%. About half of the country’s urban population resides in Kigali. The secondary cities of Huye, Muhanga, Musanze, Nyagatare, Rubavu and Rusizi together house about a quarter of the country’s urban population. This will put substantial challenges on adequate environmental management, reduce urban pollution and take pressure off natural resources at risk due to this development. Poverty is still a problem in Rwanda’s cities, where migrants to the city find themselves settling in unplanned areas due to inadequate housing supply and affordability. (SIDA, 2019)

It is to be noted that even if only 16.6 % of Rwanda’s population lives in urban areas, the country has one of the highest annual urban growth rates in the world. It is estimated at 4.5 % annually, which exceeds the worldwide average of 1.8 % by far. This puts hard pressures on the urban areas to provide adequate low-carbon housing, electricity and energy more generally for heating and cooking, safe access to and clean water and sanitation. (SIDA, 2019). Never the less According to official statistics 79% of Kigali dwellers live in unplanned areas (unplanned settlement). (MININFRA, 2015). This situation is problematic and needs to be addressed in its all dimensions in order to reach Rwandan development goals in line with National transformation strategy known as NST1 where the overarching objective of the Economic Transformation pillar is to accelerate inclusive economic growth and development founded on the Private Sector, knowledge and Rwanda’s Natural Resources with the following Specific objectives:

1. Create decent jobs for economic development and poverty reduction
2. Accelerate Urbanization to facilitate economic growth
3. Promote industrial development, export promotion and expansion of trade related infrastructure
4. Develop and promote a service-led and knowledge-based economy
5. Increase agriculture and livestock quality, productivity and production
6. Sustainable exploitation of natural resources and protection the environment. (Government of Rwanda, 2017)

In addition to that according to Laterite research in the city of Kigali, it was revealed that Eighty-seven percent of households in unplanned settlements have access to non-contaminated water sources, but only 56% reported access to a piped water connection either in their house or compound. Similarly, access to improved sanitation is near universal in unplanned settlements, but almost 65% of households use pit latrines as a means of waste disposal. Compound living is the most common housing arrangement, with an estimated 68% of households living in enclosed areas. Low-quality walling materials tend to be combined with high-quality rooves and floors. (Laterite, 201 9)

Rwanda’s building and construction industry has rapidly grown in the past couple of years with both government and private sector engaged in the construction of buildings and roads infrastructure triggering what is now dubbed as a “construction boom in Rwanda”. The construction industry contributes immensely towards the GDP of the Country mainly through direct income and massive employment opportunities generated from various infrastructure projects, rehabilitation and maintenance. It is estimated that the construction sub-sector of the larger industrial sector contributes the highest to the country’s industrial GDP with 52% of industrial output in 2010, up from 41% in 2002. However, there has been over dependence on imported building materials, which depletes the meager foreign exchange resources while denying the citizens the opportunities of production of the materials locally. Within Rwanda, commercially viable amounts of clay, wood/timber, sand and stone exist that are not fully exploited for industrial growth. A district such as Nyarugenge has 700,000 cubic meters of confirmed clay deposits that exhibits Rwanda’s rich natural resource base. There is however a need for detailed geology studies to establish the exact quantities of these construction materials nationwide and establish their lifespan and quality, an aspect too wide to have been undertaken in preparation of this master plan. (MINCOM, 2014).

This research will explore the specific objectives of ofNST1 Economic transformation pillar connected to the brick sector transformation in Rwanda which helped as a tool to the City of Kigali s in the participatory unplanned settlement transformation and supply of affordable residential housing ,descent jobs were creation, sustainable resources exploitation and knowledge base economy through skills transfer.

1.3. Research objectives

1.3.1 General objective

The general objective of this research is to investigate to which extent the implementation of PROECCO programme in Rwanda contributed in the fulfillment of National Strategy for Transformation in its pillar of Economic transformation.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

As mentioned above, the specific objectives of this research are based on NST1 Economic transformation pillar specific objectives

1. Create decent jobs for economic development and poverty reduction: To examine the job creation through the PROECCO programme implementation from 2017-2021, this includes the modelling the created direct jobs based on bricks production data and the development of a calculation tool for investors in brick sector from artisanal production to industrial production since investing is a driver of job creation. This calculation tool helps to provide information on important financial metrics including annual production capacity, investment required,first year total revenue, first year projected expenses, first year operating cashflow, first year positive cashflow, average operating cash flow in ten years, and the payback period in a clay brick production business considering the environmental protection, preserving the quality standards and human dignity.

2. Accelerate Urbanization to facilitate economic growth: To analyze the process of Rehousing program at Mpazi unplanned settlement through a participatory approach in collaboration of the City of Kigali, SKAT, and UNHABITAT.

3. Promote industrial development, export promotion and expansion of trade related infrastructure: To analyze the evolution of brick industry development from 2017-2021 and the concept of brick industry cluster development in Rwanda in collaboration with the government of Rwanda. This is a situation analysis on national standard fulfillment in brick industry

4. Develop and promote a service-led and knowledge-based economy: To list the skills transfer done by PROECCO from 2017-2021, examine its direct impact to beneficiaries’ vis a vis salary and liable jobs.

1.4. Research questions

1. What are the direct jobs created by the PROECCO programme implementation from 2017-2021?

2. How was the process of Rehousing program at Mpazi unplanned settlement through a participatory approach and the collaboration of the City of Kigali, SKAT, and UNHABITAT?

3. What is the situation with national standard fulfillment in clay based building materials production in Rwanda?

4. What are the skills requirements in the transformation process of brick sector and proper applicability of modern smart wall construction?

5. What are the financial benefits gained by the pioneers of skills development during the brick sector transformation in the city of Kigali?

1.5. Research hypotheses

1.The transformation of brick sector done by SKAT Consulting as industry facilitator through PROECCO programme implementation is in line with the pillar of Economic transformation specific objectives of National Strategy for transformation

2. The transformation of brick sector done by SKAT consulting as Industry facilitator through PROECCO programme implementation is not in line with the pillar of Economic transformation specific objectives of National Strategy for transformation

1.6. Significance of the study

This study is expected to benefit, government policy makers, the investors, modern bricks investors and Scholars :

The government policy makers will be able to know to which extent development programs contribute to short, mid and long term country’s objectives in improving its citizens livelihood and be able to decide timely about the direction which they should take in their implementation process. In case the programmes are found irrelevant to citizens need and have no flexibility in their reorintation the officials in charge willbe able to immediately phase out such kinds of programmes and projects.

With this research, the investors in building materials production and in Real estate will be informed on existing supply gap and clearly understand existing investment opportunities in these areas in Rwanda. Due to the investment calculation tool developed, this study helped to provide a clear financial metrics picture of brick production business ranging from artisanal production to industrial production.

The scholars will benefit about the literature regarding the Strategy of Industry transformation having in place an Industry facilitator with a concrete case study of the brick sector transformation i Rwanda.

1.7. Scope of the study

This study is exploratory and is only limited to the impact of brick sector transformation in economic development in line with the Pillar of economic transformation of National strategy for transformation in Rwanda. This will explore the specific this sector transformation through examining the specific objectives of this pillar. The data that will be analyzed are those from July 2017 to July 2022.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Conceptual and theoretical perspectives

This section deals with the relationship between two variables making the research topic. These variables are referred to as independent variable which influences the dependent variables. Conceptual frameworks, according to educational researcher Smyth (2004), are structured from a set of broad ideas and theories that help a researcher to properly identify the problem they are looking at, frame their questions and find suitable literature. For this case therefore the research is to investigate the impact of brick sector transformation on the supply of affordable residential houses in Rwanda

The research will be based on the following variables:

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.1. Conceptual Framework

Source: Generated by researcher

2.2. Brick sector transformation in developing countries and its economic and environment

2.2.1. A case of brick sector transformation in Vietnam

The fast economic growth in Vietnam which the brick industry has contributed to has reduced poverty, and the brick industry is an important pillar of this growth. It is estimated that Vietnam consumes over 20 billion bricks per year, almost 250 bricks per capita. Every family of five would thus consume 1250 bricks per year, good for some 50 m[2] of wall. The fast growth of the brick industry also has its downside. Over 10,000 traditional brick kilns are still in operation and are heavily polluting the environment. They have very high energy consumption (coal and firewood) and provide bad working conditions. Traditional brick kilns are seasonally and batch operated. They work in the dry season, use the topsoil of agricultural land and are fired in batches, as opposed to continuous kilns. Batch operated kilns are by definition less energy efficient than continuous kilns as the heat can neither be used for pre-heating new bricks nor for cooling the fired bricks. The high coal consumption and flue gas emissions have led to severe local pollution. The surrounding rice fields and other crops have been intoxicated with fluorine and sulphur emissions, and this has led to high compensation payments. (SDC.2010).

2.2.1.1 Partnership Vietnam – SDC

The Vietnam Sustainable Brick-making Project (VSBP) is a cooperation between SDC and the authorities of the Nam Dinh Province, located some 90 kms south of Hanoi. SDC had already previously worked with the provincial authorities of Nam Dinh. The region has a thriving brick industry with more than 600 kilns due to its location in the Red-River delta and its clay resources. To address the environmental problems, the government of Vietnam had decided to modernise the brick industry. In 2001, it decreed that traditional brickmaking would be eliminated from urban areas by 2005 and phased out entirely by 2010. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.2 Social improvement upon sector transformation

The brick industry is traditionally very labour-intensive and employs millions of unskilled and semi-skilled workers. Some tasks, such as firing, require skilled workers, but the majority of jobs can be done by anybody willing and capable of carrying around clay, bricks, and coal. Replacing these millions of jobs through capital-intensive tunnel kiln technologies would not only destroy many jobs, but would also be in contradiction with the economic production factors where capital is scarce and labour abundant. Some 24 out of 25 jobs would become obsolete. Finding intermediate solutions and introducing selective mechanization was thus an important contribution to inclusive social development. The income of the workers has increased about fourfold as the jobs are now available all year round. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.3 Selective mechanization

All tasks that were associated with heavy work are now mechanized, especially the moulding of clay into green bricks and the transportation of the bricks on carts. Especially on the vertical shaft brick kilns, green bricks are lifted with a winch and unloaded with a hydraulic system. Mechanical extruders have replaced hand-moulding and at the same time allowed for the making of hollow bricks. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.4 Clean air for the workers

Much attention was paid to improving the flue gas systems and to eliminating all toxic gases on the Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK, see below) that could lead to health hazards for the workers. Double air ducts for flue gas collection to the chimney were introduced to allow minimal flue gas releases on the top of the VSBK.

Several important improvements to the local environment were able to be achieved: CROP DAMAGES The clay of the Red-River delta contains high amounts of fluoride; and the coal, high amounts of sulphur. This combination led to highly toxic flue gases that damaged the surrounding crops. A relatively simple and cheap solution was to add limestone to the green bricks in order to neutralize the SO2 and fluorine of the flue gases. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.5 Soil depletion

An even more annoying environmental impact of the traditional brick industry is the use of topsoil for green brickmaking. The brick industry was hitherto a seasonal industry using only the upper part of agricultural soils for brickmaking, and the growing number of bricks produced resulted in a conflict of interests between agriculture and industry. New clay extraction methods and participatory processes with the community have led to the identification of long-term clay deposits. Moreover, hollow bricks not only save energy in firing, but also use some 40% less clay for the same volume. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.6 CO2 emissions

The brick industry in Vietnam consumes some 2.2 million tons of coal per year. Loaded on 220,000 10-ton trucks, this would be equal to a traffic queue of 2200 km, more than the entire distance from the northern to the southern tip of Vietnam. One single vertical shaft brick kiln can save some 500 tons of CO2 per year, and reduces 40 to 60% of green-house gas emissions. The over 300 VSBKs are already contributing significantly to reduced CO2 emissions. The process of cleaning up the Vietnamese brick industry could be accelerated if supported by the carbon finance certificates of the CDM (clean development mechanism) or through voluntary emission-reduction certificates such as “myclimate”. One single VSBK kiln could thus compensate some 250 passenger flights (full airplane, one-way) from Europe to Vietnam. Similarly, better insulation of the low-cost tunnel kilns and the introduction of best practices have led to better energy performance. But an even higher impact on energy conservation may be the result of using hollow bricks with better insulation properties: it is estimated that a wall made of hollow bricks saves some 5% of the electricity spent on air-conditioning. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.7 Economic improvements: low-cost tunnel kiln

When the government of Vietnam decreed the phasing out of traditional brick kilns by the year 2010, there was hardly any other technical solution available than the tunnel kiln used by large, state-owned industries. This technology was, however, not accessible for small and medium-sized enterprises. A low-cost version of tunnel kilns corresponding to the tunnel kilns prevailing in Europe in the 60s was introduced by private entrepreneurs. The partnership has supported these tunnel kilns with a series of technical and organizational measures to improve the economic efficiency and performance, and to optimize the firing methods. TUNNEL KILN IMPROVEMENTS The tunnel kiln is considered to be the most advanced brickmaking technology. Its main advantage derives from the continuous flow of bricks loaded on carts through a tunnel of over 60 meters. Interestingly, low-cost versions of tunnel kilns have been developed in Vietnam at a cost of less than USD 500,000, considerably less than the conventional Western models that require at least 5 times higher investments while operating at double capacity at minimum. The Vietnamese tunnel kilns produce some 50,000 bricks per day, while Western kilns operate at 100,000 bricks and more. However, the kilns were not operating in an optimal way and experts from Germany and India were contracted to analyze the process and recommended improved “housekeeping” measures or best practices. Better insulation led to higher energy efficiency; a better brick cart was designed; and many small improvements were recommended. Due to the relatively low investment, these tunnel kilns are highly profitable. A typical tunnel kiln requires an investment of USD 424,000 and yields a net profit of some USD 160,000 p/a. The low-cost tunnel kilns are also a very interesting option in other Asian countries, and a Vietnamese delegation met with a lot of interest from brick-makers during a study tour to India. In Nam Dinh alone, more than 25 of these low-cost tunnel kilns are already in operation. Brick prices are very high at the moment due to high demand and increased coal prices; this makes the brick business very attractive. The lower investment costs also allow the private sector to operate these tunnel kilns, while Western tunnel kilns would require state-owned enterprises. Schematic drawing of a tunnel kiln: The green bricks are loaded on carts that move slowly through the tunnel and get gradually heated up to 950 degrees Celsius in the central firing zone. The flue gases are used for pre-heating the green bricks and for cooling the fired bricks. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.8 Economic improvements of the vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK)

Even a relatively low-cost tunnel kiln is not accessible for the many family-owned and co-operative traditional brick producers. They are more interested in medium-range investments, and the vertical shaft brick kiln was thus a more accessible solution. Many VSBKs were constructed in a short period, but without systematic know-how. Some of these kilns had design mistakes and low operating performances. Initially, the government did not approve the VSBK as a viable, socially and ecologically acceptable alternative to traditional kilns. Through discussions with the Provincial government, it emerged that their main concerns regarding the VSBK technology was its poor track record with respect to occupational health and product quality, as well as its 'traditional' nature – that is, it is meant for small-scale and seasonal production. To address these concerns adequately and to help the Provincial Authorities in the process of granting approval for the technology, it was decided to support setting up a ‘Model VSBK Enterprise’ in Nam Dinh. In contrast to traditional brick-making, the model enterprise was conceived as an all-year-round industrial activity with an impeccable social and environmental performance record. It was to be less capital-intensive than a tunnel kiln, but still become a formal enterprise. The model VSBK required an investment of some USD 60,000 and yields a net profit of some USD 10,000 p/a. MODEL ENTERPRISE VSBK The model VSBK enterprise in Nam Dinh has now received all approvals needed from the government. Its main features are as follows: Technical: § Improved VSBK design incorporating modifications in the flue gas system and chimneys, and use of a hydraulically operated unloading system § A good quality de-airing extruder to mould hollow bricks § Adequately sized drying shed to ensure uninterrupted supply of dried green bricks to the kiln even in the rainy season Business: § Long-term availability of clay at source § Accessing credit from commercial banks Regulatory and Compliance with all necessary government clearances and approvals So far, some 300 VSBKs with over 600 shafts have been introduced in Vietnam, and the soon forthcoming phasing-out deadline for traditional kilns may boost their dissemination further. Some 10,000 kilns may potentially be replaced by VSBKs (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.9 Institutional improvements of the co-operation

The partnership has identified and tested technical and organizational options for brick-making that are environmentally sound, economically viable and, at the same time, accessible to small-scale producers. Furthermore, investigations have revealed shortcomings in large-scale units, while options for improving the environmental and economic performance of industrial tunnel kilns have been identified. The partnership thus aims at improvements along the entire production chain and does not simply promote one solution to fit all needs. The demand-driven development support through identification and testing of options concerned the entire cycle of brick production, including clay extraction, green brick production, the firing processes, as well as production organization and business management. Additionally, options have been identified that provide authorities with more effective methods, equipment, and capacities for “state management” functions such as: emissions measurement, environmental monitoring, clay resource management, planning, and promotion of development in the brick-making industry. In all of these areas, a demand-driven approach was applied involving authorities and private brick-makers in a dialogue process of assessing existing problems, identifying options, and developing appropriate technical and organizational solutions. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.10 Participatory state management

Appropriate technical solutions are crucial, but not sufficient to achieve policy objectives. In addition, the transition to sustainable brick-making requires significant changes in the state management of brick-making. The challenges in this area were considerable. At the outset, policy application was hindered by the lack of reliable information on actual conditions and processes of brick-making, clay resources, energy efficiency, emissions, environmental impact, enterprise economics, etc. Authorities had limited contact with brick-makers and – besides the unpromising prospect of attempting to close traditional units – they could propose no technical alternatives for improving the environmental performance of brick-making. Lastly, the authorities lacked practical instruments for enforcing regulations and guiding development processes. The partnership began with an extensive series of diagnostic studies to establish an adequate basis for deliberations. Then, through an intensive programme of workshops, seminar, forums, training courses and study tours, it built up contacts and mutual trust to establish a platform for exchange and cooperation that encompassed all stakeholders – largeand small-scale brick-makers, as well as provincial and district authorities. With strong official support, a pro-active and participatory approach has thus emerged towards state-management of the brick-making sub-sector. Provincial authorities have recognized that more effective management requires the decentralization of certain regulatory and support functions to the district and commune levels. Furthermore, it has become apparent that an extensive shift out of traditional brick-making cannot be left to the individual decisions of small-scale producers alone. It needs to be promoted within the framework of local, community-managed development.

2.2.1.11 Enabling sustainable development

An enabling environment for sustainable brick-making involves the institutional anchoring, scaling-up, and dissemination of solutions, techniques and programmes that have been developed and piloted by the cooperation. The cooperation approach encompasses strengthening the policy framework, namely: § building the platform for public-private cooperation § setting up a “sustainable brick-making support unit” § supporting establishment of a brick-makers association § facilitating the regularization of small-scale enterprises § disseminating the sustainable brick-making approach.

2.2.1.12 Working locally with a national impact

The Vietnam-Swiss cooperation has a local dimension and works in Nam Dinh Province. There are significant results to be shown at local level, while many institutional improvements are shared at the national level. The number of tunnel kilns in Nam Dinh Province has more than doubled in three years, from 11 to 25. Of course, there are many reasons for this expansion: the economic climate is good and the demand for bricks is growing. It is noteworthy that all of the new investors have participated in training courses and many have employed planning tools developed by the partnership programme. The cooperation has certainly made a positive contribution. For the Nam Dinh authorities, the available basis for decision-making has also been greatly expanded through improved information on the brick-making industry, documented technical solutions, guidelines and instruments for policy application, methods and capacities for environmental monitoring, etc. From the national perspective, the Nam Dinh approach is considered to be a pilot effort which aims to produce a practical model of sustainable development that may also be applicable in other provinces and sectors. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.13 Capacity building

The main impact of the partnership’s activities derives not only from the technical results, but also from the processes and methods which it has introduced to achieve them. As described above, prior to the partnership programme, policy application had been stalled by inadequate information on brick-making, lack of working contacts, insufficient policy instruments, as well as the absence of technical alternatives. With Swiss support, a systematic, goal-oriented programme has been initiated involving the stakeholders in coordinated, mutually reinforcing activities of information gathering, problem-analysis, technical development, training, capacity building and policy application.

2.2.1.14 Basis for decision-making

The objective of establishing a “basis for decision-making” has been achieved by promoting the transfer of available information and solutions into actions. Contributions in this regard include: training courses; distribution of plans, guidelines and tools; technical assistance and field service for brick-makers; as well as policy instruments and capacity strengthening for authorities. (SDC,2010)

2.2.1.15 Training activities

· Brick-makers and technical staff training course Due to high demand, this 8-day course was held twice with a total attendance of about 100 participants. The curriculum covered selected aspects of: labour protection and safety; equipment and technology; brick-making techniques; management skills.

· Production supervisors training course The 5-day course was held once with about 70 participants. Training modules dealt with: production techniques; quality control; trouble-shooting; energy efficiency; management functions, etc.

· Directors Forum Three two-day forums were attended by 45 directors and owners of brick enterprises. Based on participant priorities, the subjects covered included: investment decisions and enterprise expansion; technology and product design; planning and management of the enterprise; clay exploitation; environmental impact; production economics and cost efficiency; sales management; and human resource management.

Printed guidelines and tools have been prepared for brickmakers addressing topics such as: enterprise economics; financial planning tools; credit application template; VSBK manual; and guidelines for mitigating the environmental impact of brick-making. Documentation has also been produced on a “model VSBK enterprise”, including: plant layout; construction plans; financial planning format; registration and legalization procedures. This material has been distributed – and/or is available – to all participants in the training courses. Finally, technical assistance in the field was provided to brick-makers to assist them in solving practical problems associated with technical innovations. The main impact of these measures on enterprise development is two-fold. First, through financial analysis and tools, entrepreneurs have become far more aware of the economic attractiveness of both tunnel kilns and VSBK. Second, the availability of tested designs, know-how, and competent technical assistance has given investors much higher confidence in their ability to establish a successful enterprise with high environmental standards. (SDC,2010)

2.2 Overview of Urbanization and Housing Supply Need in Sub-Saharan Countries

2.2.1. Decent Housing as A Fundamental Right In Rwanda And Elsewhere

The Urbanization and Rural Settlement Sector encompasses social, economic and environmental activities. It has relevance to both, urban and rural areas. According to policies of Rwanda, access to a decent housing and favorable living conditions is a fundamental right for all citizens. This is in line with the Habitat–Declaration agreed upon in 1996 in Istanbul, which admits that housing is a fundamental right for every citizen. The management of ongoing urbanization requires the establishment of procedures and tools for development planning, zoning and urban renewal, with the provision of adequate infrastructure facilities. Planned and well-managed urbanization is an opportunity and driving force for development. It is accompanied by the development of the commercial, service and industrial sectors thus contributing to the GDP and enhancing the standard of living. The sector aims at improving public services, the quality of public infrastructure, as well as contributing to economic development and poverty reduction in the country. Activities in the Urbanization and Human Settlement Sector are aligned with the objectives and development strategies outlined in the Strategic Framework Vision 2020, the EDPRS 2013- 2018, the National Urban Housing Policy, the National Human Settlement Policy, the Law Governing Urban Planning and Building and the Decentralization Policy and subsequent laws. (MININFRA, 2013).

2.2.2. Urban Affordable Housing Demand in Sub-Saharan Countries and International Finance Corporation (IFC) Commitment to Address the Issue

African cities become the new home to over 40,000 people every day, many of whom find themselves without a roof over their heads. With that in mind, IFC has committed to do more to develop the property sector, both to provide new and affordable housing and to encourage an industry that requires significant building materials and has the potential to be a major employer.

In ay 2021, IFC and Chinese multinational construction and engineering company, CITIC Construction launched a $300 million investment platform, CITICC (Africa) Holding Limited, to develop affordable housing in multiple African countries. The platform will partner with local housing developers and provide long-term capital to develop 30,000 homes over next five years. IFC estimates that each housing unit will create five full-time jobs – resulting in nearly 150,000 new jobs on the continent. (IFC,2021)

Kenya and Nigeria are high on the priority list for the new effort. Kenya’s housing shortage is estimated at 2 million units, while Nigeria is in want of 17 million units. The soaring demand is being met by scant new supply. Africa’s housing market has few local developers with the technical and financial strength to construct large-scale projects. (IFC,2021)

The IFC-CITIC Construction platform will work with local housing companies to develop affordable housing projects across Sub-Saharan Africa, each ranging in size from 2,000 to 8,000 units. CITIC Construction has a proven track record in constructing and delivering large scale housing projects. The platform will start by developing homes in Kenya, Rwanda and Nigeria, expanding to other countries as operations ramp up. (IFC,2021)

“In Angola, through planning, financing, construction and post-construction operation, CITIC Construction has successfully completed the 200,000 units housing program, new city of KilambaKiaxi, with relative infrastructure and utilities in four years. CITIC Construction has also founded the CITIC BN Vocational School in Angola which helps youth acquire the skills they need to become professionals”, said Hong Bo, Assistant President of CITIC Group and Chairwoman of CITIC Construction, “CITIC Construction will take advantage of our engineering experience and delivery capability to develop more affordable houses for Africa through the platform with IFC.”

“As Sub-Saharan Africa become more urbanized, the private sector can help governments meet the critical need for housing”, said OumarSeydi, IFC Director for Eastern and Southern Africa. “The platform will help transform Africa’s housing markets by providing high quality, affordable homes, creating jobs, and demonstrating the viability of the sector to local developers. (IFC,2021)

IFC will work with financial institutions to support mortgages and housing finance that will allow people to purchase the units.” The new housing units will be constructed in accordance to IFC’s green building standards, delivering homes that are environmentally friendly and sustainable. (IFC,2021)

The World Bank Group estimates that by 2030, three billion people, or 40 percent of the world’s population will need new housing units. To date, IFC has invested more than $3 billion in housing finance in over 46 countries world-wide. IFC focuses on regions where large portions of the population live in sub-standard housing and have limited access to credit to build, expand, or renovate their homes. (IFC, 2021)

2.2.3. Urban Development Situation In Tanzanian Cities And Impact To Economic Growth

Tanzania is urbanizing rapidly and its cities are the country’s engines for economic growth. The country’s urban population share increased from 5.7 percent to 29.1 percent from 1967 to 2012, and it is projected to exceed 50 percent by 2050. Cities already produce more than half of the country’s gross domestic product and accounted for around 56 percent of its economic growth from 1990 to 2004 (Kessides 2006). They also account for most of the country’s physical, financial, human, academic, and technological capital. But as for many countries in Africa, more can be done for Tanzania to better capture the benefits of urbanization in terms of economies of scale and agglomeration. Cities in Tanzania are largely growing informally, owing much to the lack of strategic and integrated spatial guidance, as well as ineffective coordination of land uses, infrastructure, services, and jobs. This is further exacerbated by insufficient enforcement of development control and generally limited resources in and supply of affordable land and housing. Furthermore, most cities have been developing without spatial guiding tools such as master plans or detailed local area plans.1 The urbanization process needs to be better managed to improve cities’ economic efficiencies and livability. (Agwanda et al,2014)

2.3. Definition Of Key Concepts

2.3.1. Affordable house:The housing literature defines an ‘affordable house’ as a house at or below a specified price threshold, whose price is relatively aligned with the household’s income and permits the beneficiaries of the affordable housing programmes to meet other basic needs required for sustaining their livelihoods (Mosha, A.C.,2013).

Affordable Housing Unit – As per international practice, an affordable housing unit is a habitable unit for which households are presumed to pay thirty percent (30%) or less (UNHABITAT suggests 25%) of their annual income, where such income is less than or equal to that City’s median income. In the case of Rwanda, the percentage of annual income, or the maximum annual cost to be paid to consider a Unit affordable is established periodically by CoK or GoR, based on EICV data or other official NISR recognised surveys. (Surbana Jurong,2020 in Kigali City master plan 2050).

2.3.2. Residential housing: any building, structure or portionthereof that is primarilyoccupied, or designed or intended primarily for occupancy, as a residence by one or more households and any real property that is offered for sale or lease for the construction or locationthereon of such a building, structure or portion thereof. "Residential housing" includescongregate housing, manufactured homes, housing intended to provide or providingtransitional or temporary housing for homeless persons and commonhealth care, kitchen, dining, recreational and other facilities primarily for use by residents of a residential housing project. (https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/residential-housing retrieved on 14th Oct 2021)

2.3.3. Informal Settlement: Informal settlement is a dwelling put up without authority of the owner of the land, usually without a formal design and without conforming to any specification as to laid down rules and regulations, planning standards, generally accepted methods of workmanship, construction and is more often than not temporary. (Wafula NABUTOLA,2003)

2.3.4. Industry facilitator: Actors of an industry which focus on promoting supply of products, creating demand and shaping the broader business environment. Thereby, it is the goal to create a self-sustaining and competitive industry which is capable of operating by itself after the industry facilitator ends its support. (Porter, M. E, et al, 2002)

2.3.5. Secondary city: is a term used to describe the second-tier level of a hierarchical system of cities based on population thresholds. Its meaning varies, and can relate to: population size, administrative area, or political, economic and historical significance of a system of cities below the primary order of cities within a country or geographic region. Secondary cities perform important functions in the national and global system of cities. They are secondary hubs in a complex network of production-distribution supply chains and waste management recovery systems, connecting different spatial levels of human settlement (Roberts, 2014).

2.3.6. System of cities: acknowledges that it is the relationship among cities, their comparative and complementary expertise, and their evolution in relation to other urban and rural areas that should be the focus of national policy (Clarke Alvarez et al., 2008).

2.3.7. Urbanisation: Is the gradual shift of relative populations from rural to urban areas. Levels of urbanisation are measured crudely by the percentage of population residing in urban areas, and the rate of urbanisation as the percentage increase in urban population. The sources of urban population growth include: rural to urban migration; natural increases in the population already residing in urban areas, and the urbanisation of rural and peri-urban settlements. From a demographic perspective, urbanisation has a people-centred focus (Mc Granahan& Satterthwaite, 2014).

2.3.8. Urban areas: are those that have a high population density and built-up features compared to the surrounding areas. The term can apply to industrial zones and related infrastructure as well as to cities and towns. (Avis, W. R.,2016).

2.3.9. Urban development: is the social, cultural, economic and physical development of cities, and the underlying causes of these processes. Urban growth is an increase in the absolute size of an urban population. This could be at the level of an individual settlement or a collection of settlements (e.g. at the national level). Urban growth and urbanisation often occur together, but not always. A nation’s urban population can grow in absolute terms without increasing in relative terms (Fox &Goodfellow, 2016).

2.3.10. Urban expansion : refers to an increase in the built-up area of a settlement or collection of settlements (e.g. at the national level). This often accompanies an increase in urban population size (i.e. urban growth). But urban growth can happen without expansion in contexts of increasing habitation density; conversely urban expansion can occur without urban growth where de-densification happens − e.g. suburbanization (ibid.). ( Avis, W. R.,2016).

2.3.11. Modern Bricks : An umbrella term for a variety of clay based building materials and construction systems, which are produced with energy efficient technologies, using environment friendly fuels, while offering improved gender sensitive working conditions to the labour involved (SKAT, 2016)

2.4. Global overview on informal settlements

The growth of informal settlements, slums and poor residential neighborhoods is a global phenomenon accompanying the growth of urban populations. An estimated 25% of the world’s urban population live in informal settlements, with 213 million informal settlement residents added to the global population since 1990 (UN-Habitat, 2013b). Informal settlements are residential areas where (UN-Habitat, 2015b; Brown, 2015):

§ Inhabitants often have no security of tenure for the land or dwellings they inhabit ‒ for example, they may squat or rent informally;

§ Neighborhoods usually lack basic services and city infrastructure;

§ Housing may not comply with planning and building regulations, and is often situated in geographically and environmentally sensitive areas (Patel, 2013).

A number of interrelated factors have driven the emergence of informal settlements: population growth; rural-urban migration; lack of affordable housing; weak governance (particularly in policy, planning and urban management); economic vulnerability and low-paid work; marginalization; and displacement caused by conflict, natural disasters and climate change (UN-Habitat, 2015b). Many governments refuse to acknowledge the existence of informal settlements, which undermines citywide sustainable development and prosperity. These settlements continue to be geographically, economically, socially and politically disengaged from wider urban systems and excluded from urban opportunities and decision-making (UN-Habitat, 2015f). City government attitudes to informal settlements range from opposition and eviction to reluctant tolerance and support for legalisation and upgrading. Upgrading informal settlements, through tenure regularisation and provision of infrastructure, is widely accepted as preferable to relocation, helping to sustain social and economic networks considered vital for livelihoods. (Devas et al., 2004)

Living in informal settlements disproportionately affects certain groups. Informal settlements often sit on the periphery of urban areas, lacking access to markets and/or resources. For women, for example, this can heighten barriers they face in accessing livelihood opportunities. Home-based workers also face challenges to entrepreneurial activity (Chant, 2014).

Women in informal settlements spend more time and energy accessing basic services than other urban counterparts, limiting their ability and time to earn through paid employment (UNFPA, 2007). In addition, the prevalence of male-biased land tenure policies and restrictions on women’s rights to own property decreases the likelihood of alternative housing options. Poor quality housing, or eviction and homelessness, can also increase the risk of insecurity and sexual violence (Chant, 2013; McIlwaine, 2013).

Countering the negative aspects of informal settlements requires governments to recognize the challenges residents face and actively include them in wider city systems. However, the regularization of settlements may not overcome the stigma associated with living in certain areas. UN-Habitat identifies a number of key drivers for action:

§ Recognition of informal settlements and human rights. Urban authorities that adopt rights-based policies and integrated governance create prosperous, sustainable and inclusive cities.

§ Government leadership. National governments must provide enabling environments to develop and implement appropriate policies to bring about change. Government at all levels must connect key stakeholders, harness local knowledge, enact policies and plans and manage incremental infrastructure development.

§ Systemic and citywide/at-scale approaches. Initiatives work best when they capitalise on agglomeration economies; use innovative financing and taxes; ensure equitable land management; recognise multiple forms of employment; reintegrate informal settlements with infrastructure and services via planning and design; clarify administrative responsibility for peri-urban areas; and undertake sensitive planning to avoid exposure to environmental hazards.

§ Integration of people and systems. Governments must develop and coordinate broader integrated frameworks that are underpinned by urban planning, legislation and finance arrangements; are supported by interconnected institutional arrangements; and ensure the inclusion of marginalised groups and key stakeholders. Participation must be at the heart of this approach, ensuring an understanding of economic and social community dynamics.

§ Housing. The provision of affordable, adequate housing, including in situ upgrading and avoidance of forced evictions, security of tenure and livelihood and employment generation, all play a role in urban prosperity.

§ Long-term financial investment and inclusive financing options. Sustained investment in affordable housing and upgrading programmes is critical. This includes pro-poor housing plans and financing support for all tiers of government.

§ Developing participatory, standardised and computerised data collection. Residents of informal settlements should be engaged in local data collection. Data collected at community level must be standardised and linked to city, regional, national and global comparative indicators. Data collection must also be embedded in monitoring and evaluation processes.

§ Peer learning platforms. Platforms that draw on stakeholders’ knowledge should be prioritised to facilitate peer learning. These platforms may include a range of communication strategies and multimedia mechanisms. (Avis, W. R., 2016).

2.4.1. Transformation of unplanned settlement in Tanzanian Cities

Planned and unplanned settlements and their access to infrastructure and services. The Tanzanian studied cities all have sizeable unplanned settlement areas, and they exhibited similar trends but varying degrees in their expansion or conversion. For example, a close examination of the changes of planned and unplanned settlements in three case cities—Arusha, Dodoma, and Kigoma—between 2005 and 2015 showed that all have significant expansion of unplanned areas (the largest being in Arusha, at around 30 percent, to around 25 percent in Dodoma and 18 percent in Kigoma). In addition, there is observable expansion in planned settlements, but only significantly so in Dodoma (around 13 percent). Interestingly, some conversion (or upgrading) of unplanned to planned areas has taken place as well, and this is sizeable foremost in Kigoma (around 10 percent) as well as in Dodoma (around 5 percent). The spatial location of these trends is useful to inform each city’s decision for service provision or upgrading actions. (see figure 2.1) . (World Bank,2018)

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.2. Changes in planned and unplanned settelement areas in Arusha,Dodoma and Kigoma between 2005 to 2015 (percent of residential land area)

Source: (World Bank, 2018)

Overall, less than half of the case cities’ populations have adequate access to health facilities, schools and urban parks; this already low service accessibility is, unsurprisingly, worse for unplanned settlements. For the case cities in general, less than half of cities’ populations are within one kilometer (approximately equivalent to 20 minutes walking distance) of a health facility, school, and urban park. Apart from Arusha, access to these services are higher in planned and nonresidential settlements. Less than ten percent of serviced areas in all observed settlements are in unplanned areas. Such service accessibility conditions are related to a city’s population density, size, and connectivity overall and to the nearest city center or downtown where most of the facilities are located. The analysis provided here has significant planning and provision implications to help improve the support for the needs of residents, particularly in the unplanned areas, and for the marginalized and most vulnerable. (World Bank,2018).

2.4.2. Situation in Kigali city informal settlement

2.4.2.1 Context of Unplanned Settlement in the city of Kigali

The city of Kigali has been growing rapidly in recent years. With an estimated annual growth rate of 4–7%,1 half of Rwanda’s urban population now resides in the city. Infrastructure and housing development have struggled to keep pace with the city’s rate of growth, and ‘unplanned settlements’ have formed to fil l the gap. According to official statistics, 79% of Kigali’s households live in unplanned areas. (MININFRA, 2015).

Below is the map of Unplanned Sttlement in the City of Kigali.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.3. Map of Unplanned settlement in the city of Kigali

Source: Laterite, 2019

About 65% of adult residents in unplanned settlements were born outside of the Kigali province, but within Rwanda. The proportion of migrants in unplanned areas of the city is higher than in older, well-established neighborhoods. The most recent migrants, who moved to the city in the past five years, account for about 15% of the population of unplanned settlements. 61% of recent adult migrants are female. Migrants are more likely to be tenants rather than owners and live in smaller homes. Though when they first arrive migrants change house more often than non-migrants, the housing situation of migrants in Kigali stabilizes over time. About 63% of recent migrants identified seeking business or paid employment opportunities as a main reason for their relocation. Unemployment levels in unplanned settlements are similar to the rest of Kigali at about 1 8%, with an estimated 40% of heads-of-household working in the informal sector. (Laterite, 2019).

2.4.2.2. Residents have low incomes and rent affordability is a concern

Median incomes of household heads from employment are approximately 80,000 Rwandan Francs (RWF), or USD 89, in unplanned areas of Kigali. Higher education achievements are associated with a significantly higher median income (Figure2.3 ). The study found that on average, heads-of-household in Kigali’s unplanned settlements have higher levels of education compared to the national average in all grades except tertiary education: 11 % of heads-of-household reported completing tertiary education, compared to the national average of 15% in urban areas.( NISR,2017)

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.4 Median monthly income by education level in Kigali unplanned settlement

Source: ( NISR,201 7). Labour Force Survey. Kigali, Rwanda.

2.5. Integrated development program (IDP) model villages in Rwanda

Having Rwandans live in decent houses is one of Rwanda’s development priority. By 2008, the country had achieved only 22%, a figure which compelled Government to establish a Rural Settlement Task Force (RSTF) in December 2008 to reach the target. First beneficiaries were communities relocated from scattered and high risk zone areas. This bore the idea of Integrated Development Programme (IDP model village) in 2010. (RHA,2022)

As of 2019, the Ministry of Infrastructure reported 130 IDP model villages constructed countrywide. Out of these, 70 IDP villages were made of clustered buildings of 4-in-1, 2-in-1 and 8-in-1 units.Beneficiaries were members of 4,200 households and every year, one of the model villages is launched on Liberation Day – July 4. The gesture was a reminder that battlefront liberation has handed over to health, economic liberation which work in progress. (RHA,2022)

Here are some of the model villages which completely changed lifestyle of beneficiaries.

1.Rweru IDP

Located in Rweru Sector, Bugesera district, Rweru model village is one of the rarest stories of shifting hundreds of citizens who were isolated on two islands. The residents were sifted from Mazane and Sharita and only had a handful of boats which crossed over to the mainland to see and enjoy developmental aspects in their own district. Even when Mazane Island had no electricity, one primary school and a health center, it was not easy to convince citizens to abandon their fishing, papyrus handcrafts and subsistence farming lifestyle. The new home has electricity connection, clean water, a modern market, a school and a 12-kilometre road network. The Rweru IDP was inaugurated by President Paul Kagame. It is home to 140 houses which accommodate 288 families. ((RHA)

2.Karama and Gikomero Model Villages

Even though they lived in the city of Kigali, 400 families in Karama and Gikomero sector in Gasabo and Nyarugenge District respectively were no different from Mazane and Sharita Islanders. Both Karama and Gikomero villages have school infrastructure including Science and ICT laboratories, Early Childhood Development Centres (ECDs).

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.5: Karama IDP model village

Source: Web photo

3.Gishuro Model Village

In July, 2020, Gishuro Model Village, Groupe Scolaire Tabagwe and Tabagwe Health Centre, Integrated new handcraft centre, Agriculture farms and cowsheds and an ECD in Tabagwe, Nyagatare district were unveiled as part of the annual Liberation Day celebrations. The village, located at 19 km from Nyagatare City is home to 64 vulnerable families. The model village came as a solution for Tabagwe Sector residents who used to cross over to Uganda in search of basic needs. (RHA,2022)

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.6: Gishuro IDP model village

Source: Web photo

4.Horezo model Village

This liberation dignity has been seen in places like Rongi Sector in Muhanga District, which is home to Rwf18 billion Horezo village seated on 156 hectares with 25 house structure built in a modern 4 in 1 style. The village inaugurated in 2018 accommodates 100 families but with a story to tell from the past. The village has a health post, recreational facilities including a football pitch, Basketball and volleyball pitches and two airstrips, model pre-school complex, Primary and secondary school with capacity to accommodate 720 students. (RHA,2022)

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.7: Horezo model Village

5.Kinigi IDP Model Village

On behalf of HE Paul Kagame, the President of the Republic of Rwanda and Commander-in-Chief of Rwanda Defence Force, the Minister of Defence, Hon. Maj Gen Albert Murasira and Local Government Minister, Hon. Gatabazi J Marie Vianney inaugurated Kinigi IDP Model Village that accommodates 144 families in Musanze District on 4 July 2021. The Model village constructed by Rwanda Defence Force in partnership with other Government Institutions was inaugurated and availed to locals as Rwanda marks the 27th Liberation Day Celebration. The IDP Model Village consists of 6 Apartments that accommodate 144 families, Groupe Scolaire Kampanga, an ECD, Kinigi Health Centre and other welfare support facilities such as cowsheds for 102 cows, poultry cages for 8000 chicken, livestock hall and Agakiriro among others. The village also has a water supply system, access roads, electricity, and many trees planted in the entire compound, among others.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.8:Kinigi IDP Model Village

Source: Web Photo

6.Munini IDP Model Village

On behalf of HE Paul Kagame, the President of the Republic of Rwanda and Commander-in-Chief of Rwanda Defence Force, Rt Hon Prime Minister Dr. Edouard Ngirente inaugurated MUNINI IDP Model Village on 04th July 2022. The Model village constructed by Rwanda Defence Force in partnership with other Government Institutions was handed over to 48 families as Rwanda marks the 28th Liberation Day Celebration. The Model Village consists of residential houses, Groupe Scolaire Munini that includes Primary and Secondary school as well as ECD and other welfare support facilities. (RHA,2022)

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.9:Munini IDP Model Village

The use of a brick from the transformed sector is considered as a tool to enhance Rwandans liberation in providing to each and every one a good shelter and a fully equipped and organized neighborhood. In this context housing in considered as one of universal human right

2.5. General fired brick history

Manufacture of clay bricks is as old as time. As per historical records, clay bricks were first made by hand, sun dried, and then stacked to form a wall.

When “fire” was discovered, it led to a revolution in brick making. An explanation of the origin of fired brick is that a fire in a village in Mesopotamia, observed that a stack of sun-dried bricks under the action of raging fire had become stone-like strong and developed a pleasing red-ochre color. The hitherto weak bricks were suddenly transformed into mechanically strong products on account of chemical reaction and bonding.

Since then, the technology of clay products has made immense strides with respect to scale and efficiency of production operations. Nowadays, we have clay brick plants of capacities as high as 1800 tons per day, which is possible as such plants are working with robots to make it super-efficient and produce quality products. (ANIL,2018)

But unfortunately, this technology development has remained confined to the developed world only, eluding the developing world almost completely.

Technically, clay bricks fall under the category of heavy-clay products, forming a major part of the ceramic industry. Heavy-clay products are those that are mainly made from a single clay with very little addition of other raw materials. They are principally used in structural work. Hence heavy-clay products like bricks, hollow clay blocks, roof tiles, split tiles, etc. are often called structural clay products. (ANIL,2018)

Clay Brick, i.e. common burnt clay building brick, is perhaps the only manmade material that has defied time gracefully ever since it was invented over 5000 years ago. Unlike metals and organic materials, brick weathers aesthetically with time, never giving in completely to the onslaught of natural agencies working against it. Also, it is an excellent thermal insulating material.

The eternal life and exceptional thermal insulating property of the clay brick has earned it an enviable and indispensable position among todays’ choice of building materials alternatives. Like cement (i.e. ordinary Portland cement) no alternative material has yet been able to threaten burnt clay brick seriously on technical as well as commercial grounds. In the early eighties, concrete blocks appeared to replace it as a walling material in metropolitan and big cities. But they soon lost their charm on account of improper mixing and curing practices followed by their manufacturers and the poor 'nailability', water seepage resistance and insulating properties of the material. Their use is now mainly restricted to areas where poor insulating properties are of little or no consequence, like compound walls, some factory / commercial buildings, the so-called 'low-cost affordable' housing schemes, etc. Non-availability or unacceptable quality of bricks or preference for large-scale captive production (utilizing huge quantities of freely available aggregates / filler materials) may also prompt the use of concrete blocks. Of late, cured mud blocks or soil blocks have also tried to make a dent into the popularity of conventional burnt clay bricks. But despite enjoying continued Government patronage and being cheaper and more energy efficient, they could not muster much support from the end-users due to poor weathering resistance and difficulty in organizing large-scale production with consistent quality in one place. (ANIL,2018)

In short, conventional burnt clay bricks are here to stay, like it or not! This is precisely the reason why the brick industry is managing to keep itself alive, despite serious challenges, which threatened its very existence.

2.5. Fired brick history in Rwanda

In Rwanda, fired bricks have become known as building material relatively late. Before the introduction of brick-firing-technology, the country experienced a variety of building materials and architectural styles for housing units. In the Kingdom of Rwanda, which was established approximately in the 15th century, most Rwandans lived in self-contained traditional circular huts, put together in rural and agricultural settlements. The buildings were usually arranged in compounds of lineage and clan members and surrounded by cattle corrals and banana plantations. A typical roundhouse was constructed of cypress poles, buried in the ground on one end, bent down to the center and tied in place on the other end. This backbone of the hut was wrapped with concentric rings of reeds and bamboo, before being thatched with bunches of grass (ADEKUNLE, 2007).

Due to, and simultaneously with the colonization of Rwanda by the colonial power Germany in the late nineteenth century, the construction of ‘western style’ modern buildings began. The round architectural style was replaced by a rectangular shape, even though initially, merely government houses in the main cities were constructed in this manner. Private houses in urban areas followed, imitating the design of houses of colonial administrators and European missionaries (Florien Broder, 2016).

Around this time, Catholic missionaries first introduced the techniques used by contemporary European brick industries to Rwanda in order to build churches and compounds of fired bricks, because evangelization was often preceded by building activities. Both the German and after World War I the Belgian administrations produced building materials for their government constructions using the same techniques (CRISTOFORI 2012, JEFREMOVAS 2002).

For the majority of the population fired bricks as building materials were still not an option, due to a lack of availability or lack of knowledge. Instead, clay walling became common, favored by the virtually ubiquitous clay deposits. Clay walls were either built by the wattle and daub method, or constructed of sun-dried bricks, called adobe. Wattle and daub walls were created, similar to the traditional grass thatched houses of the Kingdom of Rwanda, by weaving thin sticks, reeds or bamboo around vertical wooden posts. To fill any gaps between the sticks, wet clay was smeared onto the wattle, providing an even surface and protection from the elements (SUNSHINE, 2006).

Adobe bricks were composed of soil, mixed with water and in some cases with organic material, such as straw or dung. The malleable mixture is patted into a rectangular shape by hand or poured into a mold. The adobe brick was finalized by sun-drying for several days or weeks (MACHENRY, 1984).

Adobe bricks have a number of advantages. They are widely available, inexpensive and the production requires minimal skill. The bricks can be made by hand and on site, reducing transport demand and therefore cutting energy use and pollution. The production nevertheless is limited by the weather, leading to about five month of unproductiveness, due to the rainy season in Rwanda. Another disadvantage is that adobe bricks are not as resistant to water damage as other building materials such as natural stones or fired bricks. In addition, the final products might be susceptible to termites and other insects, burrowing through adobe walls, thus weakening them (CHIRAS, 2000).

However, the introduction of fired bricks in late ninetieth century, the technology that was introduced was the firing using traditional clamps since it was found simple despite its higher impact on the environment. It is in 1980s that there has been an introduction of other bricks firing technologies with less impact on environment and less waste since they minimized the percentages of breakages and the quantity of firewood used. The introduced technology is known as climbing kiln by the Suisse Agency for Cooperation and Development (SDC) and the Belgium, the updraft kiln by Chinese upon the construction of Amahoro stadium and Cimerwa the cement factory in Rusizi district (N. Ismael and N. Francis, 2017).

Clay brick production process in semi-mechanized brickyard

The clay brick industry is characterized by a multiplicity of raw materials and a plethora of products. Depending upon the financial capacity of the enterprise, appropriate technology would be employed for setting up a clay brick manufacturing operation.

The brick industry in Rwanda has been classified by SKAT in the following technological scales:

➢ small-scale starter unit brickyards characterized by a large share of manual labor, few and simple machines with low investment requirements

➢ Intermediate scale semi-mechanized brickyards displaying a medium degree of mechanization and permanently labor intensive

➢ Large-scale Industrial brickyards with almost fully automated production facilities and enormous capacities.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.10: Flow chart on clay brick production

Source : SKAT,2021

The Clay bricks production takes place in following operations in a semi mechanized brickyards :Raw materials, Excavation of clay at clayquarry, transfer of clay at the production site, stockpilling, ,box feeder, roller miller, double shaft mixer, Two Stage De-Airing Extruder ,Primary & Secondary Cutter, drying, zigzag kiln firing, kiln fuel, Sorting & Storage in Finished Goods Yard.

Raw Materials:

Clay and Loam have been used for producing bricks for thousands of years, or rather from the beginning of time. The term “clay” or “loam” are usually applied to all very fine-grained, plastic raw materials, regardless of their origin, granulometric composition, mineral association and chemical constitution. It is precisely these varying attributes of the individual clayey materials that are responsible for the differences in their technical behaviour. (SKAT,2021)

Clay and loam are products of rock weathering. Weathering, the severity of which depends on climate, vegetation and geographical situations, produces a weathering crust over all newly formed soil constituents – even though its distinctive features vary wildly throughout the world.

The weathered rock which goes onto form clay, is one of the most abundant minerals in the world. For clay brick production, clay must possess basic specific properties. The clay characteristics must include plasticity, which actually permits the shaping or moulding when mixed with water; they must have enough air-dried strength to maintain their shape after shaping process.

Upon being shaped and dried, the shaped product is subjected to high temperature in a kiln, where transformation in the form of chemical bonding occurs, the resultant product is mechanically strong and product color is pleasing (SKAT,2021)

Types of Clay

Clays occurs primarily in three principal forms, all of which have similar chemical compositions but different physical characteristics.

Surface Clays: Surface clays may be the up thrusts of older deposits or of more recent sedimentary formations. As the name implies, they are found near the surface of the earth.

Shales: Shales are clays that have been subjected to high pressures until they have nearly hardened into slate.

Fire Clays: Fire clays are usually mined at deeper levels than other clays and have refractory qualities.

All three types of clay are composed of silica and alumina with varying amounts of metallic oxides. Metallic oxides act as fluxes promoting fusion of the particles at lower temperatures. Metallic oxides (particularly those of iron, magnesium and calcium) influence the color of the fired brick. The clay brick manufacturer minimizes variations in chemical composition and physical properties by mixing clays from different sources and different locations in the pit. Chemical composition varies within the pit, and the differences are compensated for by varying manufacturing processes. As a result, brick from the same manufacturer will have slightly different properties in subsequent production runs. Further, brick from different manufacturers that have the same appearance may differ in other properties.

The grain size distribution has a decisive influence on the technological behaviour of clay materials for brickmaking. The finest grained fractions, being especially important. Contents of less than 2μm in size (μ = 0.001mm) are generally termed the clay faction. Those from 2μm to 63μm as the silty-clay fraction and those larger than 63μm as the sand fraction.

The above described size grading of clays is very important as it allows us to either use the clay or reject it outright.

Fine-grained clays often have high drying shrinkage that create problem during the clay brick manufacturing process. Over 25% fractions smaller than 2μm display drying sensitivity. It is also observed that very fine-grained carbonates also reduce the drying shrinkage. Though each clay has its own drying parameters which apart, from grain size distribution, also depend on the geological evolution of the clay. This knowledge can be applied to the improvement of the drying behaviour of structural clay bodies. The extent of linear drying shrinkage largely depends on the amount of make-up water applied for plasticity. A brick shrinks until the make-up water is expelled again and the particles of the clay body have formed a stable framework. A stable framework is most easily achieved by a gradation of sizes in the grain distribution. The addition of sand alone does not result in such a gradation or spread in particle sizes. Raw materials should be added therefore which complement the existing grain size distribution, e.g.; silty loams. If the unfavourable drying properties of a clay are corrected by merely by high sand additions, the workability of the clay will be adversely affected. Rather, it is advised to have a mix of clays or loams, if necessary, with sand additives, to obtain a body with uniformly good properties. (SKAT,2021)

On account of the widespread availability of Kaolin within Rwanda, it has become a popular replacement for sand in clay brick making process. Sand availability in Rwanda is scarce and thus expensive, while Kaolin is available across Rwanda.

The advantage with using Kaolin are two-fold:

Firstly, it replaces sand. Sand is a coarse-grained product and thus abrades the metal parts of the machinery, reducing their useful life. Kaolin, on the other hand, has a greasy feel and does not abrade.

Secondly, Kaolin has a unique property, that it reduces drying time of freshly extruded products. This property is a big help especially in areas where green bricks are dried naturally.

Clay brick experts aver that high grade structural products can be made with three minerals, Kaolinite, Illite, Quartz

Illite produces plasticity of the clay; kaolinite has very good sintering behaviour and quartz mainly acts as a stabilizer. Some ad-mixtures / minerals have a positive effect on the clay:

Carbonates: Fine grained carbonates reduce drying shrinkage.

Iron Oxide: This mineral provides the inimitable red color to the clay brick upon firing.

Chlorite: If coarse-grained, can cause lamination during the extrusion process.

Feldspars: It does not act as a flux, as the firing temperatures for clay brick firing is much less than the flux temperature of Feldspars.

Organic materials: When present in large amounts, can lead to reduction cores (“black cores”) in the brick. In small amounts, it can influence positively influence plasticity.

Excavation of Clay at the Clay Quarry:

The job of clay excavation is best left to experts. It is best undertaken by a professional geologist. The evaluation begins, therefore, with correlation from borehole to borehole and the identification of stratification. Correlation is usually dependent on the results of the test work carried out on the exploration samples. A detailed description of the geological structure and quality variation can then be made and should include plans and profiles. From the information got, production planning and quality evaluation can be made.

Ownership of minerals varies greatly from country to country. In Rwanda, the owner of the mineral land has to engage with the Rwanda Environment Management Agency, better known by the acronym, REMA. REMA through partner agencies conducts an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the mineral land. EIA, is an important document that outlines the quarrying activities and how the land after complete excavation has to be restored.

A general overall site development plan has to be made in order to take into account all relevant factors, before any detailed work is started. This general plan should have:

1. Location of mineral deposit: From the exploration work carried out whilst searching for raw materials, it should be possible to fix reasonably accurately the extent of mineral deposit.
2. Location of waste disposal sites: Waste disposal should be planned in such a way as not to sterilize mineral. There are several examples to be found where this decade’s mineral is buried under last decades’ waste disposal. It is understandable that it is desirable to minimise the distance that overburden and waste material is carried, but short-term gain is usually at the cost of medium-term loss.
3. Transport access: Transport costs will inevitably become a major part of the cost of finished goods, not only in terms of manufacturing costs, but also need to add the delivery cost to the customer. It is therefore very important that all modes of transport are considered.
4. Energy Supply: For a very large requirement of mineral, where the manufacturing plants are setup to produce 1000 tons of finished goods per day, then the clay quarrying activity too would be a large exercise. In such cases, it will be necessary to house staff on site. In such cases, source of power supply has to be ensured to provide lighting and water supply to residents.
5. Drainage: Generally, open-cast mining is resorted to in almost all clay quarries. As a result, the excavated clay leaves behind a huge pit, in which water could collect, especially in areas that receive high rainfall. Therefore, it is imperative that such clay quarries have good drainage system, so that clay quarrying activity can continue through the rainy season.

Because of the plastic nature of the clay, it becomes difficult for rubber tired vehicles to drive in water laden areas.

It also becomes expensive as high powered pumps are to be requisitioned to pump out water from the pit.

6. Effect of local and residential other industrial activities in close proximity:

Certain industries can be affected by the dusty environment, e.g. food and electronics industries. Residential complaints against dust and noise can often be minimized if care and consideration are given to these problems at the planning stage itself.

The problems of noise are particularly difficult to estimate since their nuisance is often mitigated or increased by the surrounding environment. In rural residential areas, the mining agency could provide relief to the residents by providing good roads, establishing a school for children of the area, a primary health centre as a community development program.

7. Environmental Issues: After the clay is exhausted from the mining area, the mined area has to be restored by way of filling up the mined area and making it suitable for agriculture. (SKAT,2021)

2.6. Low carbon modern clay bricks towards the provision of a solution on housing supply

The use of locally produced building materials that do not compromise the natural ecosystem and which use the least energy for their production and transport must be emphasized in accordance with the Building Code.” – Article 17, Ministerial Order N° 04/Cab.M/015 determining urban planning and building regulations. Most urban residents still access housing through informal practices, because the formal sector cannot offer housing access schemes which cater to all. A number of circumstances result in the situation where most housing developments only address a minority of buyers, among whom demand has not even been saturated yet. The tremendous need for housing, and housing which is accessible for all residents, requires a comprehensive commitment of the government across different sectors.” (MININFRA, 2015).

Inventories of locally available raw materials for construction confirmed Rwanda’s scarcity of limestone, which prevents the cement industry from growing further. Yet, these inventories also revealed the nearly inexhaustible clay deposits of very high quality, generated by the country’s laterite-covered hills. Being a clay-rich country, the entire urban demand for walling material could be met with modern Rwanda-made clay products. These products could substitute all cement blocks and with it nearly all the imported cement, which is the country’s frequently top-listed import item. The incomes lost to the foreign cement industry worth USD 50-80 million every year, could entirely be transformed into 30-50.000 decent Rwandan jobs if the brick sector could be transformed into a formal industry. (SKAT & RHA, 2018). The below map shows the potential clay zones for bricks production in Rwanda.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.11: Map for Potential clay reserve in Rwanda

Source: SKAT 2014

2.6. Housing typology and market trends in the city of Kigali

2.6.1. Housing Development and Market Trends in Kigali City

Two main modes of access to housing exist in Kigali City: formal and informal development.

Formal housing development: the formal sector housing in Kigali is typically made of real estate agencies or individuals who buy land plots from the private landowners in different planned residential neighbourhoods and develop various housing units (villa, single family houses or residential apartments), which are then sold to the public. Main developers include public agencies such as the Rwanda Social Security Board (RSSB) and la BanqueRwandaise de Développement (BRD) or the Development Bank of Rwanda (DBR), and various local and foreign private registered real estate agencies. These include Urukumbuzi, AbadahigwakuNtego, the Ultimate Developers Ltd (UDL), the Millennial Development Ltd, and the Remote Estates, among others. However, they supply a small number of houses: from 800.00 to 1,000.00 dwelling units per year, which can be affordable for the high-income groups only (Centre for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa, 2018).

This formal market can barely meet 3% of the annual housing demand in Kigali city. Due to this limited supply, a large number of households from the middle- and high-income groups (representing 21% of Kigali city inhabitants) use the formal process to develop their houses (single-family houses) through self-help, using their incomes or loans provided by financial institutions. Since some of them do not own land or do not have land plots in the planned residential neighbourhoods, they acquire them from other property owners through the formal land transaction process . Thereafter, they request construction permits from Kigali city and develop their houses according to zoning regulations (Mathema, A,2012) .

However, this formal process has not been used by the overwhelming number of Kigali city inhabitants, mainly poor and low-income groups due to the high cost of formal housing development. Therefore, these urban dwellers have been accessing housing through informal housing development. (Baffoe, et al,2020)

Informal housing development: this housing development option, through self-help construction, is applied by around 40.00% of the poor and low-income Kigali city inhabitants whose monthly income is less than 380.00 US dollars . (Nkubito, F.; Baiden-Amissah,2019). Therefore, they do not have the capacity to buy or build a house in Kigali city through the formal process. Most of them are the original inhabitants who own land through the traditional processes of inheritance. Others include rural–urban migrants who, until 2008 when land rights were not yet registered in Rwanda, had been acquiring land from the original landowners through the informal land market, whose records were maintained through the process of private conveyancing. From 1980, when the first masterplans in Kigali city (covering a small part of the administrative boundary of the city) were crafted, these poor and low-income groups have been informally developing their houses in unplanned areas (World Bank Group,2017).

Under this informal housing development arrangement, the mean cost for the development of a housing unit is 2757.50 US dollars for low-income groups and less than 552.00 US dollars for poor urban dwellers. The cost of land is not counted, since most of them are the original landowners. The middle-income groups have also been applying the informal housing development option to build-up their houses, which they use for their own residences or rent to tenants. Tenants represent around 53.00% of Kigali city inhabitants (National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda,2015).

This percentage can increase up to 80.00% in the old informal settlements which are close to the Central Business District (CBD) and service centers where most of the poor and low-income groups can find wage employment (Mathema. A 2012). This practice of informal housing development resulted in the escalation of informal settlements until 2013, when the new masterplan that covers the whole administrative boundaries of Kigali city, which was adopted in 2008, was not yet enforced [City of Kigali,2013 ].

Since these houses were developed using low-cost local materials, they exhibit appalling housing conditions, so that the current Kigali city masterplan recommends that they should be demolished, especially those located in high-slope or flood-prone areas . Their demolition can result in very high demand for low-cost housing, which has never been met by the real estate developers and government agencies. Nevertheless, some of these informal settlements can be upgraded or converted into modern residential apartments and green spaces with respect to the land slope and current zoning regulations (City of Kigali,2019).

2.6.2. Housing typology in the city of Kigali

The table 2.1 below shows the demand in various housing categories/typologies for Kigali city urban dwellers, in 2020

Table 2.1: Housing demand in Kigali city from 2012 to 2020.

Source: Ernest UWAYEZU and Walter T.Vries(2020)

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Social housing: A housing typology that is affordable by households below the poverty line, earning less than 120.00 US dollars per month. This is under-development by the government through a subsidy system;

· Affordable housing: This is demand for households earning between 120.00 and 772.00 US dollars per month. This is the largest segment of the housing market. These households have some payment capacity and could access a special rental market which may include the rent-to-own leasing mechanisms, etc.;

· Mid-range housing: Targets households whose incomes vary from 772to 4110 US dollars per month. Households whose income is less than 1320. 00 US dollars can also buy these dwellings under the affordable housing scheme and apply for the related bank loan, as stated in the current affordable housing schemes. Others can use their income or apply for mortgage financing to fund their houses;

· Premium housing: This addresses housing demand from the high-income group whose monthly income is greater than 4110.00 US dollars per month.

Table 1 shows that there is need to produce about 39,000.00 housing units every year. However, production has remained a crucial concern, as revealed by the increasing deficit in housing supply by the general formal market since 2012. They can supply less than 1000.00 housing units every year, as previously mentioned (City of Kigali,2013, Nkubito, F.; Baiden-Amissah,2019).

In addition, the development of social housing is also very low, since, each year, Kigali city, in collaboration with other government agencies, can develop around 200 housing units for the poor urban dwellers (City of Kigali,2013, City of Kigali,2016).

2.7. Housing affordability in African countries vis a vis Rwanda

According to World Bank, the cost for a housing unit is 20 to 30 percent higher in Rwanda than in Nairobi (Kenya) and Johannesburg (South Africa). The reason for this is that some of the construction materials are imported from East and South Africa, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and China. The most imported materials are cement, steel products, porcelain, and many interior installations such as plumbing and electrical goods. These materials are more than 50 percent more expensive than the same products in East and South Africa (World Bank Group,2019) .

This requires strategies that can help to decrease their cost, in order to make the produced housing units affordable. For instance, there could be options for the substitution of cement with cheaper alternatives. Some studies have estimated the substitution of cement with the fly ash or pozzolana material could be up to 35% without compromising the quality of the houses (Shinde, S. and Karankal, A,2013).

2.8. Industry facilitator’s role in industry supply chain development

Industry facilitators are actors are who focus on promoting supply of products, creating demand and shaping the broader business environment. Thereby, it is the goal to create a self-sustaining and competitive industry which is capable of operating by itself after the industry facilitator ends its support. When reaching this objective, the industry facilitator succeeds in creating more sustainable impact and in a broader context than conventional development projects. (Porter, M. E. ,2000a).

Industry facilitators act to resolve scaling barriers, at the levels of both the enterprise and its wider business ecosystem, to the benefit of many firms, not just one. They do this in order to help promising market-based solutions which are commercially viable and benefit the poor accelerate towards scale. (Koh, Hegde et al,2014). Actors which promote industries shape both its supply and demand side. They empower numerous firms and aim to establish advantageous market conditions and sales markets (Porter, M. E et al,2002). In this regard, effective industry facilitation focuses on the entire value chain and considers forward and backward linkages within the industry as well as linkages to other sectors. Hence, the relationships and interdependences between parties within an entire sector are regarded. Depending on the position of an industry and the linkages, positive effects of industry facilitation may also be observed in other related industries of a sector. Due its complexity, understanding the market forces is a key concern for successful industry facilitation (Porter,M.E&Caves 1977).

A holistic understanding of an industry regarding its composition is crucial to promote it. Hence, industry facilitators consider different actors including companies, governmental agencies, academia, training providers, associations and institutions in a specific field. Over time, industry facilitators acquire new knowledge based on their former actions. These insights are important to progressively understand businesses and their environment and markets in order to design industry facilitation activities more effectively. They are also important in cases of attempted industry facilitation where market approaches have failed in the past and new strategies are used. (Prunier, G. ,1995).

“ The role of an industry facilitator is not an easy one and there is no copy-paste solution available that can be used anywhere. It needs some subtle and intuitive skills to judge when it is right to act directly, when it is better to facilitate, or in other words: sometimes one needs to push, sometimes to pull, and sometimes to step besides. The art is to know when what is most appropriate. This requires quite a good dose of pragmatism” (Skat Consulting ,2016)

In conclusion, it is the ultimate goal to create or to scale an industry beyond the size of a pioneer and up to the size that the industry is self-sustaining. Moreover, the intended industries shall be inclusive and contain all steps along the value chain as well as providing necessary tools and administrative support. In an ideal case, the industry drives a scaling process by increasing supply and demand as well as quality improvements and innovation through competition.

2.8.1. Creating new markets

The challenges for an industry facilitator within a newly or recently created sector are typically more sophisticated than in already existing markets. The reasons behind that is the task for an industry facilitator to create both supply and demand. This requirement is essential to build inclusive industries (Rice. M,1999): . It guarantees the creation of a functioning market and can turn push markets into pull markets.

In the context of development work, new products and services are typically introduced into an existing or entirely new market and they need to be promoted. Often, customers are skeptical about the product or do not perceive the advantages sufficiently. Also, potential stakeholders have to be taught about the advantages of the product or service because they may not perceive the favorable aspects sufficiently (Roaf, M., 1995).

Such characteristics describe push markets. In these situations, an industry facilitator must convince different market actors about the benefits of the new product or service. Push markets are characterized by high efforts of education as well as the need to actually create visibility, recognition and positive perception of a certain product or service. Hence, acting on the supply and demand side in communicating products’ or services’ benefits to potential providers and customers represents a crucial step to facilitate an industry in a push market. In contrast, products and services are well-perceived and desired by consumers in pull markets although the product might be an innovation and stakeholders did not know about it before informing them. Even though stakeholders might need some explanation, the necessary effort for an industry facilitator to promote the product or service in a pull market is significantly lower than in a push market. Based on the rules of the market, excess demand will prompt more supply and thereby accelerate the creation of markets. High demand creates more supply because entrepreneurs face lower risks to sell their products and services. Thus, it is essential for industry facilitators to pay high attention not only on the supply side as in most conventional development approaches but also specifically on the demand side in order to transform push markets into pull markets. Industry facilitators in the developing world typically start from a very low level. The countries in which they are acting tend compete in the world market with their resources or cheap labor. Beyond this level, development ambitions mostly require the formation of functioning clusters. Moreover, clusters are also important for countries moving from middle income to advanced economies. With increasing wealth of an economy, the need for clusters increases due to their drive for innovation. Based on their effectiveness, many industry facilitators use cluster theories to build industries. For them, it is important to consider that clusters typically grow along supply chains because of the advantages of collective efficiency. This is mainly because cluster structures offer business opportunities with low risk and thereby attract other businesses to join the cluster which results in its growth. Hence, the forward and backward linkages in an industry, which give indication about the size and dynamics of the market, are an important indicator how to facilitate cluster building. (Silas M, 2017). The linkages explain how clusters grow up to complete industries which include whole value chains from inputs to consumption (see figure 2.3).

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure 2.12: Example of a full value chain

Source: Centre of Innovation, Imagination and Inspiration (2016)

CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGYY

This section presents key methodological issues that has been followed to conduct this research. Among the areas covered include; the nature of research design, the population of the study, the sample size, sampling techniques and data analysis methods used.

3.1. Research Design

Mugenda&Mugenda (2003) describe a research design as the plan or structure of investigation conceived to obtain answers to research questions that includes an outline of the research work to enable the representation of results in a form understandable by all. An exploratory and descriptive method of research design has been adopted for this study. Descriptive research enables the researcher to describe the existing relationship by using observation and interpretation methods. It provides the researcher with the appropriate methodology to illustrate characteristics of the variables under study. Causal research determines causal linkages between study variables by studying existing phenomena and then reviewing available data so as to try to identify workable causal relationships.

In order to be qualified as scientific research, any study must use a number of appropriate techniques and methods related to its field. Thus, they had to be used in our research to achieve the goal. To make the research more significant and understandable, the researcher used primary data which were directly collected from the field via different techniques of data collection (documentation, observation and questionnaire) and the secondary data collected from SKAT Consulting Rwanda as a specialized institution in the domain of research, notes, internet and reports which allowed us access various existing theories.

The researcher collected data from pioneers who benefitted from skills brought by PROECCO project in the production of modern bricks in the Kigali and the masons who benefited from SKAT trainings and are currently serving as service providers across the country in both construction sites and bricks production units. The list of these people was accessed through PROECCO project data base.

3.2. Data collection

This sub-section outlines data collection instruments that has been used during the process of data collection. This study has chosen the methods and techniques to be used accordingly to both its objectives and research process. The research was conducted through qualitative, quantitative and descriptive methods. The data were collected according to each specific objective of this research. Below paragraphs explicit the method used to achieve research specific objectives:

Transformation pillar specific objectives

1. To examine the labor in brickyards through the PROECCO programme implementation from 2017-2021 : To achieve this objective the researcher used the following method:

- Exchange with Industry department representative of PROECCO project to understand the production process and the labor productivity along this process, this served to estimate the jobs created by brick production process,

- Exchange with PROECCO construction department representative to understand the productivity of workers (masons and mason’s helpers) during the modern bricks construction/ laying,

- Field visit to semi-mechanized brickyards, this were done in two starter units (Gisozi in situ production site in Gasabo district, IngoroI hujeababyeyo Cooperative in Southern province), and in two semi-mechanized intermediate units (MCECO brick factory in Rwamagana district, and Briqueterie de GATI in Rwamagana district in Eastern province),these visits helped to understand the bricks production process in semi mechanized brickyard and the lavel of labor requirements. At this occasion random exchanges with workers took place and various testimonies were given highlighting the level to which the investments done by their bosses changed their life.

2. Use of labor data collected by PROECCO project form 2017-2021 to see the picture of evolution of labor in modern brickyards and analyze the reason through exchanges with brick industry and construction experts of the project.

3. To analyze the process of Rehousing program at Mpazi unplanned settlement through a participatory approach in collaboration of the City of Kigali, SKAT, and UNHABITAT: To understand this process, the researcher interviewed the representative of Urban component within PROECCO about the genesis of the rehousing approach within a project promoting a brick, the way it was done in Nyarugenge district, the outputs at completed phases and the planned improvements. In addition to that the researcher visited a four-hectare site where the Kigali unplanned settlement inclusive urban transformation was being piloted.

Whereby an urban housing model of PROECCO programme was adopted by the City of Kigali as a solution to affordable housing and a tool for medium density and mid-rise density areas in the City of Kigali zoning

3. To analyze the situation of National standard fulfillment about clay fired products in Rwanda: Regarding the information on quality standard fulfillment and the products on Rwandan market in clay fired bricks produced at Semi industrial and Industrial level, the researcher attend a retreat prepared by Enabel and Rwanda Standard Board between 7 to 12th Aug in Musanze district, whereby a number of draft standards on clay based building materials was developed, and Other existing standards were reviewed for their adaptation to the market. In addition to that the researcher used internet data regarding certified clay building materials and sought information from the industry facilitator about existing clay fired building materials produced in Rwandan industrial and Semi industrial brickyards.

4. To list the skills transfer done by PROECCO from 2017-2021, examine its direct impact to beneficiaries’ vis a vis salary and liable jobs: The researcher explored the modern bricks production process, modern bricks construction works and related skills. In addition to that with the help of the list of service providers in brick industry, the researcher interviewed all of them to know the impact on their lives especially about their salary.

3.2.1. Primary data

The primary data were directly collected from the field in brickyards, visit to the ongoing transformation of unplanned settlement, interview service providers, interview of PROECCO programme experts from Industry, Urbanization and construction departments.

3.2.1.1. Questionnaire

A questionnaire refers to the form containing a set of questions especially the one addressed to statistically significant numbers of subject as a way of gathering information for a study. It is an instrument designed to collect data from respondents in absence of researcher, the method is used because it allows respondents to give responses to the freely at their own time without researcher’s influence (Denscomb M., 2001). In our research, the questionnaire was addressed to the concerned people and collect them later after they have responded to questions.

3.2.1.2. Interview

The interview is an important data collection tool due to its simplicity and its efficiency. It consists in asking questions to the respondents in order to get the answer in oral way. It helps to get both the views and feelings of the person to whom interview is addressed (Denscomb M., 2001), in our research, the interview was addressed to PROECCO staff as experts in matter of bricks industry in Rwanda. In addition to that the service providers trained by PROECCO in production process and in construction were interviewed to testify the impact of trainings acquired form the project and how they impacted their lives.

3.2.2. Secondary data

According to WILLIAM and GRINNELL (1990), secondary data involves the analysis of data that already exist. Therefore, the researcher has been access to PROECCO database and library and got a full support of staff, especially the officer in charge of Monitoring and evaluation. This helped in accessing all needed data that was available

3.2.2.1. Documentation

According to Mace (1988) documentation is the instrument of collection of information more used in researches. The researcher consults the documents from which she extracts from the scientific opinions or conclusions which will be used to support his argumentation. Otherwise, it helps the researcher to realize about the knowledge which exists on the problem under study. We consulted a number of materials related to Urban development and settlement, industry facilitation and brick making and its industry transformation.

3.2.2.2. Study population

Creswell (1994 defined population as «a set of cases from which a sample is drawn and to which a researcher wants to generalize». He continues by asserting that population is data pertaining to all or almost all cases to which a researcher wants to generalize. Creswell (1994) defined population as «a set of cases from which a sample is drawn and to which a researcher wants to generalize». He continues by asserting that population is data pertaining to all or almost all cases to which a researcher wants to generalize. The population of this study was constituted by all service providers trained by PROECCO project in construction and in bricks production, PROECCO project experts in brick industry, modern bricks construction, urbanization and business development.

3.2.2.3. Sample size and sampling technique

The sampling technique is a process by which a researcher chooses the sample from the whole studied population (Grinnel & William,1990).

Apart from experts representative of PROECCO programme information, field visits and secondary data accessed, this research used primary data collected through interviewing the brick production and modern bricks construction service providers selected randomly. The total population targeted of these service providers trained by PROECCO was 63 graduates members of STECOMA (Syndicates of masons in Rwanda), these were trained for the purpose of dissemination of Rowlock bond construction technology across the country as masons trainers, 14 master masons, 18 production service providers,3 Engineers trained in production and/or construction management, 2 Senior technicians, and four SKAT experts in the domain of construction, Industry/production, urbanization and business development, and a geologistrespectively which makes a total of 104. This sample size was calculated in considering the level of error margin of 5 %, meaning that the confidence level of the result is expected to be 95 %. A sample of Eighty-six respondents was taken using the method of Yamane (1967). The formula used to determine the sample is written as follow:

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Where n: required sample size

N: population

e = Standard error (e = 0.0.5)

3.2.3. Data analysis

This research employed descriptive statistics to analyze the data. It is argued (Mugenda&Mugenda, 2003) that descriptive statistics enable the researcher to get meaningful description of scores and measurements for the study through the uses of few indices or statistics. The data obtained from the questionnaires were edited and then coded for the purposes of data analysis. The data were further summarized using descriptive statistics which usually include measure of central tendency, measures of variability, and measures of reliability and frequency among others.

Microsoft excel 2016 was used to generate the graphs and tables for this research.

3.2.3.1. Data processing

During data processing, relevant data to the objective of the study is considered and transformed into a meaningful pattern for easy interpretation and understanding (Nachmias 1978: 28). D.J. Casley et al (1987:28) asserts that “data collection is not an end in itself unless data is processed, analyzed and converted into information in format that can be helpful to the researcher or users. After the end of Data collection, processing the raw data or information was done.

3.2.3.2 Editing

According to Mc Daniel and Roger G. (1991) editing is the process of going through questionnaire to ensure the ‘’skip pattern’’ was followed and required questions were filled out. In this process of editing the information collected must be verified to ensure that they are complete, reliable and that guidelines were followed. This was an attempt to ensure that all information provided by respondents was required. During the editing process, much attention was taken into consistence.

3.2.3.4 Coding

According to Mannheim and Rich C. (1995) coding contains assigning numerical standards on variables. This was used in this study by summarizing data by classifying different responses given into categories for easy manipulation. Coding was done by developing coding frames that was made from the questions asked; the answers to the particular questions were noted leading to coding patterns for which coding frames were based. After constructing coding frames, frequencies counts wasdone to facilitate tabulation. For editing, the researcher will checked the completeness, accuracy, uniformity and comprehensibility of the data. Here the error in completed interview schedule and questionnaires was identified and eliminated wherever possible.

3.2.3.5 Tabulation

This step refers to the part of technical process in statistical of data that involve counting cases that fall into different types. Tabulation is the last step after editing and coding which involves the analyzing and summarizing the findings in forms of statistical tables (Claire et Al 1965)

The tabulation was used in order to put the data into the same kind of statistical tables such as percentage and frequency occurrence of responses to particular questions. The tabulation process involved putting data into statistical tables and determination of the frequency responses for every variable showing the number of accuracies of the responses to popular questions and their calculated percentages. After data has edited and coded, it was then be combined with some form of tables for statistical analysis.

3.2.3.6 Ethical consideration

According to the literature, ethical considerations should be seriously considered by the researchers (Weber, 1949). As Weber mentions, the considerations can be divided into four categories: First of all, there is the right of every respondent do be informed for everything relevant with the particular research. Secondly, is that the researcher must protect the identities of the participants, ensuring that their answers are private and confidential.

Third, is the fact that deception is considered forbidden since it is unethical and finally the “accuracy of the data has to be assured, as it is a basic principle in social science” besides or of these respondents were assured that their answers will be kept strictly confidential.

Our search of knowledge must not contradict some ethical principles including the obligation to avoid hurting or embarrassing the respondents as well as respecting their privacy. According to Jones, R. A., (2000) we, as researchers, have to first ask ourselves the ethical relevance of any research with reference to the values and actions that we undertake in order to complete it. For this purpose, the researcher needs to observe a set of measures to comply with ethical standards during the whole process of research. With this research the researcher sought and obtained formal consent from each informant before interviewing him/her or engaging in discussions.

We informed respondents that they had the right to refuse any participation in the study; we guaranteed confidentiality regarding any information that was given to them and promised to use it exclusively for this assignment. Such a measure was intending to gain cooperation and to build trust between information seekers and information givers; anonymity was guaranteed where needed.

In addition, that the University provided the researcher a letter of consent to each and every one who could help in providing any information in this research, this served as an evidence that the researcher was conducting an academic doctorate research from a known University. This letter of consent was submitted to SKAT CONSULTING RWANDA ltd office and it was received by its administration (The letter with a reception stamp is appended)

3.2.3.7 Validity and Reliability of results

The researcher solicited the opinion of research mentor from Universitée Privée Africaine Franco Arabe on the research instrument, so as to validate them. Anchored on their expertise and experiences, the scholar given various objective advices on the contents and judged the suitability and relevance of instruments for this study. Their observations, amendments and recommendations were incorporated in with the questionnaire for the study.

The reliability was measured by using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha that is based on the mean correlation of each factor. Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency, that is, how closely related a set of items are as a group. A general rule for measuring reliability is if Alpha is above 0.70 is considerable reliable. Alpha above 0.60 is probably reliable but you should either consider eliminating some elements from the instruments to increase its reliability. Each variable was measured.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of the research study. The specific objectives that have guided this study were:

1. Create decent jobs for economic development and poverty reduction: To examine the job creation through the PROECCO programme implementation from 2017-2021, this includes direct and indirect jobs and development of the mathematical model for created jobs based on bricks production data and a regression model based on data on labor from 2017 to 2021.
2. Accelerate Urbanization to facilitate economic growth: To analyze the process of Rehousing program at Mpazi unplanned settlement through a participatory approach in collaboration of the City of Kigali, SKAT, and UNHABITAT.
3. Promote industrial development, export promotion and expansion of trade related infrastructure: To analyze the evolution of brick industry development from 2017-2021 and the concept of brick industry cluster development in Rwanda in collaboration with the government of Rwanda. (This will include the situation analysis on national standard fulfillment in brick industry)
4. Develop and promote a service-led and knowledge-based economy: To list the skills transfer done by PROECCO from 2017-2021, examine its direct impact to beneficiaries’ vis a vis salary and liable jobs.

However, before tackling the specific objectives of this research, we started by presenting the demographic analysis of respondents whereby the sex distribution, the age and the literacy status were highlighted.

4.2. Demographic analysis of respondents

4.2.1 Sex of the respondents

Of 89 respondents questioned during this study, 18 % were female where 82% were male.

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Figure 4.1: Sex distribution of the respondents

Source: Primary data, September,2022

The production and the applicability of modern clay fired brick is a sector which could generate more off-farm jobs as per the vision of Rwanda whereby off farm employments are to be created by both men and women under priority area of economic pillar of NST1 where it was planned to Support and empower youth and women to create businesses through entrepreneurship and access to finance. The trainings offered by PROECCO has empowered the current service providers as entrepreneurs, however only 4.5% are formally registered as service providers while the number of women is still low in general, but very low in the domain of Mechanical Engineering.

To conclude to the sex distribution, the number of women service providers in both construction and bricks production is still low, we therefore recommend further capacity building to women in order have gender balance in these domains.

4.2.2 Age of the respondents

In this research, the majority of the respondents were aged between 20 and 30 where 8% were aged between 31 and 40 years old whereas 7 % fell into age category of 41- 50 years old and only 2% fell into the age above 50 years old.

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Figure 4.2: Age distribution of respondents

Source: Primary data, September 2022

As PROECCO target is empowering rural youth and rural women, according to PROECCO the sustainable skills transfer is through youth with a strong academic background since this group of people has a capacity to transfer the same skills and to upgrade it.

According to the interviewed people, the oldest people are those who have started the service provision in bricks sector before PROECCO project and those who actively participated in its implementation. Most young people interviewed aged of 20-30 have started their career in bricks and Construction with PROECCO straight from their graduation whereby they can deliver more than one service to the sector under transformation.

4.2.3. Education status of the respondents

The diagram below shows the literacy status of respondents of this research.

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Figure 4.3: Literacy status of respondents

Source: Primary data, September,2022

The fact that the big number of respondents have an Advanced diploma in Engineering, around 80 % of them are from construction specialization, this shows that the brick sector transformation in Rwanda is an engine to the creation of more job opportunities in the field of construction in Rwanda. On literacy level, people with primary level with practical training in construction using modern bricks with Rowlock bond construction technology are serving as master masons in various construction sites across the country. All the master masons interviewed served in the ongoing unplanned settlement transformation in the city of Kigali whereby modern bricks produced in an environmental friendly process in semi-mechanized brickyards are used.

To conclude to this, in 2019 STECOMA (Syndicat des travailleurs des Entreprises de Constructions, Menuiserie et Artisanat) signed a MoU with Rwanda Housing Authority (RHA) whereby two of STECOMA responsibilities are Offering various trainings about new technologies in construction and certify the trainees and Always struggle to make sure that the construction is done following the master plans approved by Rwanda Housing Authority and other competent institutions in charge, and inform about anyone who may be doing the difference. (STECOMA and RHA,2019).

Though the interviewed master masons with primary and TVET certificates perform their work following the master plans approved by Rwanda housing Authority, their knowhow is not yet certified. We would recommend the competent institution to certify them and use them in the recognized trainings in the matter of new construction technology known as Row lock bond that enabled the City of Kigali to tackle the problem of unplanned settlement in Nyarugenge district through the rehousing process.

4.3. Job creation through the PROECCO programme implementation from 2017-2021 and Claculation tool for investors in brick sector in Rwanda

As this research assessed the contribution of PROECCO program in the fulfillment of the National strategy for transformation on its economic pillar under specific objectives. This specific objective examined the one of decent jobs creation for economic development and poverty reduction. According to data collected by SKAT from 2017 to 2021

The graph and the table below summarize the trend of direct labor in modern brick production from 2017-2021 and they show the regression.

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Table 4.1: Labor creation 2017-2021

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Figure 4.4: Trend of direct labor in modern bricks

In 2017 PROECCO designed an affordable housing model solution named SUISS CUBE which was exhibited in Kigali international trade fare. This is considered as a stimulus to address the problem of affordable housing in Rwanda using locally produced materials at high rate, since the technology used is based on a clay brick quality that lead to minimization of cement mortar use up to 50% reduction and minimum reinforced concrete.

The situation shows that from 2017-2018 there has been an annual increase in job creation of 30%, from 2018-2019, there has been an exponential increase in labor in the modern bricks, since in one year it increased up to 387% and this was due to an adoption of the government of Rwanda of the use of modern bricks in the construction of Integrated Development Program (IDP) model villages.

From 2017 to 2021 the direct labor in modern brickyard regression equation is:

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with R² = 0.846

Where; Y= Number of created direct permanent jobs

X= Year of operation (Year1, 2, 4, 5 n).

In line with National strategy for transformation economic pillar in its specific objective on descent job creation for poverty reduction, one of PROECCO programme objectives in the transformation of clay bricks sector transformation is the creation of descent jobs to both men and women with a particular emphasize on women participation in the whole production process.

In the collected data from 2017-2021, the average women labor is at 42% and they are observed in all production process. The fact that there is no difference in wages for same work done by men and women is another important parameter in the inclusiveness and attractiveness of women in a transformed clay brick sector.

To conclude to this, the transformation of brick in Rwanda goes in line the specific objective on descent job creation for poverty reduction, however more efforts are required in order to have sustainable brick industry that generates more jobs through the increase in adoption country wide of their use by both private and public sector.

The calculation tool for investors in brickyards

This calculation tool for investors in brick sector from artisanal production to industrial production helps investing is a driver of job creation. This calculation tool helps to provide information on important metrics including annual production capacity, investment required, first year total revenue, first year projected expenses, first year operating cashflow, first year positive cashflow, average operating cash flow in ten years, and the payback period in a clay brick production business considering the environmental protection, preserving the quality standards and human dignity. (The calculation tool here attached- Click on it for navigation)

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4.4. Accelerate Urbanization to facilitate economic growth: To analyze the process of Rehousing program at Mpazi unplanned settlement through a participatory approach in collaboration of the City of Kigali, SKAT, and UNHABITAT.

During the 2018 Kigali Master Plan Update PROECCO-designed housing was identified as a relevant tool for achieving the medium-density, medium-rise zoning objectives and highly suitable to meet the affordability criteria for current and future population in Kigali. This contributed to the new City’s medium- and long-term strategies that were elaborated with a stronger focus on social and economic aspects

One of issues addressed by the Rwandan government is acceleration of urbanization is the transformation of unplanned settlement facing a number of challenges, among others higher exposure to natural disaster, building with expensive finishing and roof with poor walling hence the exposure to accidents, high densification, no road access,etc.

To address to this the City of Kigali in partnership with SKAT Consulting and UNHABITAT piloted a Kigali Unplanned Settlements Inclusive Urban Transformation. The sections below describes how this was done and the role of PROECCO piloting the scale-up.

The image below shows the unplanned settlement in the City of Kigali- Nyarugenge district, Gitega Sector – Mpazinighborhood

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Figure 4.5: Mpazi unplanned settlement

Source: Primary data September 2022

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Figure 4.6: Mpazi Settlement completed transformation

Source: Primary data September 2022

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Figure 4.7: Mpazi settlement projected transformation

Source: SKAT,2022

To achieve to the situation shown in figure 4.7 Mpazi neighborhood Completed transformation and the projected full transformation, the City of Kigali partnered with PROECCO to pilot the scaling-up of the approach to a larger part of the city. The 4-ha pilot neighbourhood in the Mpazi catchment area was selected for its strategic position, the willingness of local communities and the possibility to integrate the project with other ongoing programs.

The area is densely populated with approximately 2.500 residents, 70% of which are tenants

PROECCO’s urban housing model developed in 2017, and first piloted in 2019 was identified as the suitable tool for a city-wide urban transformation of unplanned neighbourhoods, using an incremental and widely owner-driven approach, where land values would be leveraged to trigger inclusive processes, preventing or limiting the need for displacements.

The graphs below show the process through which the inclusive neighbourhood transformation was achieved

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Figure 4.8: Inclusive neighborhood transformation process

4.5. Quality standard fulfillment about clay fired products in Rwanda

In 2018, the SKAT in collaboration with Rwanda Housing Authority developed a concept paper for phasing out substandard clay bricks in urban agglomeration whereby with its enforcement, it would be a tool and one of stimulus of investors in modern bricks to respond to urban housing demand of two hundred dwelling units per day. With this it was projected that the use of modern bricks in responding to this need would substitute the annual cement import bill of 50-80 millions USD and thousands of jobs in Rwanda along the modern bricks supply chain. ( SKAT,RHA, 2018).

The table below shows the list of clay fired products produced at Industrial and semi-industrial level available at Rwandan market and their certification status.

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Table: 4.2: Certification status of industrial and Semi-industrial clay products in Rwanda.

Rwanda is among the countries which ratified a common market for Africa protocol an it is integrated in East Africa knowing that non certified products are not exported. The fact that most of clay products are not falling in an existing scheme of certification, a retreat about clay building materials standards drafting and amendments was prepared by Rwanda standard and the following were achieved:

1. Drafted standards:

- Standard for clay flooring tiles specifications
- Standard for Micro concrete roof tiles specifications
- Standard clay tiles specifications
- Standard for Compressed stabilized earth blocks
- Standard for Stabilized earth blocks
- Standard for lime for masonry
- Standard for heavy duty clay bricks (These are engineering bricks)

2. Identified Standards to be newly developed to respond to Rwandan market need

- Code of practice for the production of low carbon clay bricks in semi-industrial brickyards
- Standard for green construction using clay bricks
- Guidelines for CO2 emission calculation/quantification during the brick production process,
- Guidelines for embedded C02 emission calculation/quantification in a building
- Standard for suspended hollow clay floor (Maxpan) specifications,
- Code of practice for hollow clay floor( maxpan)
- Code of practice for stabilized earth block production,
- Code of practice for adobe production
- Laying techniques for stabilized earth blocs,
- Standard for clay roof tiles production process at Industrial level and at artisanal level

3. Standards to be revised:

- Standard for Clay burnt bricks specifications
- Standard for clay bricks laying

4.6. Skills development and transfer done by PROECCO from 2017-2021

As per Robert Greene quote: “ The future belongs to those who learn more skills and combine them in creative “

PROECCO successful implementation up to 2021 believed that skills development and dissemination is a tool to sustainable sector transformation. The strategy was to develop stand alone skills but interconnected hence several different skills could be learnt by one person and combine them in a creative way to serve the clay brick sector.

The graph below shows various skills developed by PROECCO project along the clay brick supply chain and the frequency to which service providers acquired them.

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Figure 4.9: Skills developed by SKAT

The status of skills transferred by PROECCO to service providers in both bricks production and rowlock construction from 2017 to 2021 shows that the main objective is the sustainability of PREOCCO activities after its phase out. However there are still areas where the skills are had by a very limited number of people, the kiln design has not been transferred to any of existing service providers (this is an autonomy of project workers), the rowlock bond construction design is only a skill had by 2% of service providers, this makes the market relying on the PROECCO team or to incompetent people that may pretend to have the know-how. The skills related to mechanical engineering, among others clay machines fabrication and maintenance, production line installation, operation and maintenance have a very limited number of service providers, this may hinder the rapid development at industrial level while clustering the modern brick making.

One of Specific objectives of the economic pillar of National strategy for transformation, of the government program from 2017 to 2024 is to Develop and promote a service-led and knowledge-based economy, the PROECCO implementation strategy seems to have taken inspiration on this idea of developing knowledge to be disseminated to service providers for sector transformation and their economic development.

Under the same pillar one of interventions is the Increase of the number of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) graduates with skills relevant to the labor market. It is in this regards that SKAT , the implementing agency of PROECCO project signed a Memorandum of understanding with Rwanda Polytechnic with a moto "Skills for a better destiny". This institution has a mandate to provide quality education that complies with applicable standards through vocational education that enables beneficiary to acquire skills required to create jobs and compete in the labour market. With the implementation of this MoU, the competence on clay modern bricks production and rowlock bond construction was incorporated in the national culculum of construction trade in its level three starting from the academic year 2021-2022 .

Following the high demand of housing in Rwanda, especially in the City of Kigali, the skills developed by PROECCO project respond to current and future demand of the labour market.

Impact of Skills development to the income of service providers

The trainings offered by SKAT PROECCO to service providers created an improvement on their daily wage as summarized in the table below:

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Table 4.3: Variation of daily wage after trainings of service providers

It is realized that the academic qualification has always an impact on income of service providers at the labor market.

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

According to our findings, the rate of women in service provision is low, they are only 18%. However, they are more active in construction but in matter of production especially in maintenance and kiln operation there is still a gap to fill. 83% of service providers are in the age that of 20-30, this shows that the targeted group will serve the brick sector for long term period, most of them are young graduates with engineering background who started their career along the PROECCO project existence. 30% of service providers work as master masons in various construction sites and are highly solicitated by the market due to the fact that they have hands on skills, low academic qualification and less expensive since their salary ranges from12000-15000 per day.

In matter of labor creation status, the labor created in the bricks production by active brickyards in Rwanda is 8931 whereby 42 % were women. This labor creation evaluated exponential from 2017 till now after the adoption of the use of modern bricks by the government of Rwanda in the construction of integrated model villages (IDP ) and in the upgrading pf unplanned settlement in the City of Kigali.

Regarding accelerating urbanization for economic growth, PROECCO and the City of piloted a Kigali Unplanned Settlements Inclusive Urban Transformation whereby four housing blocks with more than 100 dwelling unit have been completed; this was done in collaboration with UNHABITAT. The effective implementation has required a collaboration of several stakeholders whereby the residents of Mpazi neighbourhood were at the center of everything, those stakeholders were the Swiss Agency for development cooperation (SDC), SKAT Consulting Rwanda, City of Kigali, Community participation consulting firm, local government (Sector, cell and Village).

The construction technology used in the transformation of unplanned settlement is known as Rowlock bond which combines both affordability features and environment protection, this falls into the specific objective of NST1 economic pillar on sustainable exploitation of natural resources and environment protection

Regarding standard fulfilment in clay products produced by semi-industrial and industrial brickyards, only five of twenty identified products are certified by Rwanda standard board. This does not mean that other products are not properly produced but the outcome of the retreat about clay building materials new standards were drafted and others were recommended for development after analysing the Rwandan clay-based building materials. This was in line with the specific objective of economic pillar on promotion of export.

Regarding the skills development, twenty-two skills discipline were developed and disseminated whereby all service providers having various skills have realized a positive change in their life. This is in line with the specific objective on Development and promotion of a service-led and knowledge-based economy.

In nutshell the transformation of clay brick industry done by SKAT Consulting as an implementing agency of PROECCO project contribute to the economic pillar objectives of government of Rwanda National strategy for transformation. From our findings the hypothesis stating that the transformation of brick sector done by SKAT Consulting as industry facilitator through PROECCO programme implementation is in line with the pillar of Economic transformation specific objectives of National Strategy for transformation was verified and positively met.

5.2 Recommendations

Based on this research findings, following recommendations are suggested:

- The government of Rwanda should always do a deep analysis in all projects of partners in order to check their orientation in its priorities since it knows what Rwandans need than anyone else,

- SKAT, UNHABITAT and the city of Kigali to finalize the development of business model for unplanned settlement transformation in order to avail it to private investors,

- The emphasize on skills transfer to private and public sector in order to sustainably support the modern brick supply chain after the PROECCO phase out,

- Formalization of all skills developed by PROECCO and making them accessible as open source,

- Investors to take advantage of the existing housing demand and the supply gap of bricks and invest in the brick sector,

- Government to support the process of transforming the brick sector into a sustainable industry,

- Other development partners of the government of Rwanda to identify gaps in the bricks sector transformation and make them their areas of intervention,

- Further research to be done about the mechanism that would lift the brick industry to a sustainable industry,

- Further research to be done in construction design in order to enable the design of affordable house in bricks that accommodate more densification than it is today.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1. QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Respondent

I am a Doctoral Candidate carrying out a study entitled “ impact of prevailing building material sector transformation in economic development - A case study of clay brick sector in Rwanda” . You have been chosen as a Respondent since the information you provide is very meaningful for this research. The information provided will be treated with the utmost care and confidentiality.

PART A FACE SHEET: SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

Please tick the appropriate box

Age group (years)

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Level of education

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Gender

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Position

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

PART B

Instructions:

On the space provided before each option, indicate your best choice by using the rating system below:

SECTION A: INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: BRICK SECTOR TRANSFORMATION

Please note that this section concerns the skills acquired along the production process and the bricks applicability and their implication on income and the level of satisfaction of the job in comparison with before acquiring it.

1. Skills acquired

Please tick on the skill you have

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

2. Daily salary/income

Pease tick on the daily salary range

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

3. Job nature

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

4. Level of satisfaction of service providers after acquiring competence from PROECCO

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Thank you for your cooperation and your time

5. Open Questions to SKAT Consulting- Component of Urbanization and Business development

1. What is the strategy used by PROECCO from its beginning in 2013 in order to launch the sector that looked like unknown?
2. What is the strategy in place to sustain the PROECCO achievements in brick sector transformation after its phasing out in December 2024?
3. What re the key players in the development of brick industry cluster and their respective roles?

SECTION B: DEPENDENT VARIABLE: ECONOMIC IMPACT

This section is composed by open questions addressed to the component of Industry, Construction and Urbanization. This covers the information on job creationand Kigali unplanned settlements inclusive urban transformation through a rehousing approach

1. What is the labor requirements in bricks production process depending on technological scale supported by PROECCO?
2. How did the construction technic known as rowlock bond technology introduced by PROECCO contributed to the piloting of the unplanned Settlement transformation by supplying affordable housing solution?
3. As industry experts to which extent the brick industry can be transformed and invested in to help in the substitution of import of both cement and steel bars import?

[...]