Bachelorarbeit, 2019
50 Seiten
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Research Questions
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.5 Research Hypotheses
1.6 Scope of the Study
1.7 Significance of the Study
1.8 Definition of Terms
1.9 Organization of the Study
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Conceptual Clarification
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Gaps Filled in the Literature
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Sources / Methods of Data Collection
3.2 Study Population
3.3 Sampling Technique and Sample Size
3.4 Data Analysis
3.5 Validity of Research Instrument
3.6 Location of the Study
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Ways the Smart Card Readers Impacted the 2016 Gubernatorial Elections in Ondo State
4.2 The Challenges and Limitations of Smart Card Readers in the Conduct of the 2016 Gubernatorial Elections in Ondo State
4.3 Mechanisms that can be put in place to check the Challenges Affecting Smart Card Readers during Elections in Nigeria
4.4 Discussions of Findings
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Summary
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX A
I am indeed very grateful to God almighty for His all-round protection over my life, most especially in all my sojourns and endeavours. It is with immense pleasure that I acknowledge the utmost support and encouragement of my distinguished supervisor Dr. (Mrs) H.A. Ikedinma, whom I really consider a mother, I really admire her will to always help and support us like a mother would do to her children. Thank you so much ma for your patience, time and dedication to this project.
My special thanks goes to all the lecturers in the department, (Prof, O.A. Bamisaye, Part Adviser Dr. S.A. Agunyai, my supervisor and all my lecturers in my Department for their valuable comments, suggestions and support throughout the duration of this project and my programme.
I appreciate my loving and understanding parents, Mr & Mrs Olorunfunmibi and my siblings Olunike and Damilola Olorunfunmibi. God bless you greatly for your support and love.
I am also grateful to all my friends and colleagues who made my experience in the department of Political Science a memorable one it’s a very long list but I would try to mention a few. I honestly appreciate every single friend & person that supported me on this journey. Joshua, Yemi, Olajumoke, Malik, Jesutofunmi, Azeez, and many more I can’t at this time mention. I love you all. I can only hope we meet at greater heights.
Olorunfunmibi Tolulope
4th February, 2019
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
The study examined the impact of smart card reader and its effects on electoral process in Nigeria during the 2016 Gubernatorial Elections in Ondo State. The objective of the study examined the ways the smart card readers impact the 2016 gubernatorial elections in Ondo State; the challenges and limitations of smart card readers in the conduct of the 2016 gubernatorial elections in Ondo State; and mechanisms that can be put in place to check the challenges affecting the smart card readers in Nigeria. The study adopted both primary and secondary data sources. The primary data was gathered with the use of interview while the Secondary data were sourced via newspaper editorials, journal-articles, online publication and government publication. 9 key respondents which comprise staff of State Independent National Electoral Commission, Party Executives of Peoples Democratic Party (PDP); All Progressive Congress (APC) and Accord Party (AP) and Voters/Election Observers were interviewed. The study revealed introduction of Smart Card Readers contributed in reducing the spate of electoral irregularities in Ondo State gubernatorial election. The study also found out that several challenges like low battery life, poorly trained INEC adhoc staff as well malfunctioning of the cards affected the smart card readers. The recommends that the smart card readers be re-engineered such that it can be easily operated by INEC staff during elections. The study also recommends that INEC organize comprehensive training workshops for its ad-hoc staff so as to give them a broad knowledge on the use of the smart card readers. Furthermore, the study recommended that a comprehensive screening/test be organized for its proposed ad-hoc staff so that the best will be selected for elections. The study concludes that despite the various challenges that affected the use of smart card readers during the 2016 gubernatorial elections in Ondo State, the smart card readers had a positive impact during the elections especially as it reduced the challenges of electoral malpractises during the 2016 gubernatorial election in Ondo State.
Electoral process is no doubt an institutionalized procedure for the choosing of political Office Holders by qualified adults’ members of a society. Hence, electioneering process exists to· provide the electorate the opportunity and right to choose their representative and maintain contact with them. Therefore, for an electoral system to be democratic, it should allow the electorate the leverage to make real and meaningful choice devoid of coercion or intimidation (Eminue, 2005). Nigeria’s political history have been challenged with the gory tales of electoral malpractices; a feat that has negatively affected the nation’s polity. Hence, effective management of the electoral process has become an imperative political demand so as to ensure the sanctity, transparency and credibility of election results in the nation’s democratic setting especially since the inception of the Fourth Republic (Akinboye, 2005).
The Electoral Management Body-Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) is the institution charged with the responsibility of ensuring a transparent, impartial, and participatory electoral process in the Fourth Republic (Larry, 2015).However, elections so far conducted in the country since 1999 have been anything but transparent. This assessment is based on reports from local as well as international election observers (Larry, 2015). For instance, the 2003 general electionswas adjudged by electoral observers to have been riddled with high level of malpractices which ranged from buying of votes and harassment of electorates by security operatives as well as political thugs loyal to the ruling party (Akinboye, 2005). The Transition Monitoring Group (TMG) stated that the Presidential and Gubernatorial elections in some states fell short of international and regional standards and did not reflect the voting pattern of the Nigerian people (TMG, 2003). Their opinions and observations however did not prevent the inauguration of President Olusegun Obasanjo for a second term in office; thereby raising questions on the impartiality and transparency of INEC (Larry, 2015). Though the 2003 elections were condemned for falling below international standards, those of 2007 were described as the worst in the history of elections in Nigeria (Larry, 2015). According to Human Rights Watch:
The polls marked a dramatic step backwards, even when measured against the dismal standard set by the 2003 election. Electoral officials alongside the very government agencies charged with ensuring the credibility of the polls were accused of reducing the elections to a violent and fraud ridden farce (Human Rights Watch, 2007).
Having admitted that the elections that brought him to power were less than perfect, the Umar Musa Yar‘Adua administration on the 28th of August, 2007 set up an Electoral Reform Committee (ERC) to examine the electoral process and recommend ways of reforming it. The 22 member committee headed by Retired Justice Mohammed Uwais came up with several recommendations aimed at ensuring free, fair and credible elections, one that will conform to internationally standards. Amongst these recommendations include: establishing electoral tribunals to deal with electoral offenses; constituency delimitation; proportional representation in elections to Federal and State legislatures and local government councils as well as removing the power of appointing the INEC chairman from the President and vesting it on the Judiciary (Kwagha and Tarfa, 2015).
Similarly, INEC under the leadership of Professor Maurice Iwu and Professor Attahiru Jega in 2011 and 2015 respectively also introduced some electoral reforms aimed at reducing electoral malpractices in the country. While Professor Maurice Iwu introduced the idea of using Nigerian Service Youth Corp (NYSC) members as polling agents as against the old practise of recruiting anybody from the street; some of whom turn out to be agents of different candidates and political parties, Professsor Attahiru Jega initiated the technologically based reforms with the use of the Permanent Voter’s Card (PVC) and introduction of Smart Card Reader technology, a device used to scan the PVC in order to verify the identity of a voter in a polling booth (Kwagha and Tarfa, 2015). The smart card reader was one of the greatest innovations of biometric verification technology as well as a crucial aspect of the 2015 general elections especially as the electorates as well as civic societies and the international community were determined at ensuring the conduct of a credible, free and fair election in the country (Kwagha and Tarfa, 2015).
The employment of ICT devices in election management system lies largely on several experiences of other countries in election management which is often characterized by rigging and violence. In Africa for instance, no fewer than 25 sub-Saharan African countries like Sierra-Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Rwanda, Senegal, Somalia, Mali, Togo, Ghana among others have already held elections employing technology-compliant techniques like biometric voter register (Piccolino, 2015). In Ghana, the Automated Fingerprint Identification System which was used in the 2011 general elections as a digital register to eliminate double voting, played a pivotal role in curbing electoral malpractices especially as it helped in verifying the identity of voters’ at the polling stations (Piccolino, 2015).
In Nigeria, the card reading machine was introduced in the conduct of 2015 general election as well as during the gubernatorial elections in Edo, Anambra, and Ondo states and in the just concluded election in Ekiti state. However, electoral observers posits that despite the adoption of card readers, electioneering process in the country is still plagued with myriads of challenges evident in late arrival or non-availability of electoral materials, falsification of election results, failure/malfunctioning of the card reader machines and thuggery aimed at subverting the electioneering process (Eleckwa, 2008).
Election has been the means of selecting political leaders in developed as well as developing nations across the world. However, the contestation for political offices in Nigeria is often characterized by different challenges which range from controversial primaries (internal democracy); the role of godfathers who select their preferred candidates to do their bidding; electoral violence etc. These among other factors were instrumental to the adoption of card readers in the conduct of elections in the country aimed at advancing credible electioneering process. However, despite the adoption of card readers in the conduct of elections in the country since the fourth republic, electoral process have often been plagued by myriads of challenges like rigging, buying of votes, violence, malfunctioning of the card readers, and poorly trained INEC ad hoc staff.
Several scholars have examined the use of card reader and its effects on electoral malpractices in Nigeria especially during the 2015 general elections. However, it was observed that not many literatures have appraised the impact of card reader and its effects on electoral process in the 2016 gubernatorial elections in Ondo State. This is the gap in literature this study has identified and therefore seeks to fill.
The following questions will guide this study:
i. In what ways did the smart card reader impact the 2016 gubernatorial election in Ondo State?
ii. What were the challenges and limitations of the smart card reader in the conduct 2016 gubernatorial election in Ondo State?
iii. What are the mechanisms that can be put in place to check the challenges that affects smart card readers during elections in Nigeria?
The research objectives of this study are to:
i. Identify the ways the use of smart card reader impacted on the 2016 gubernatorial election in Ondo State;
ii. Examine the challenges and limitations of the use of smart card readers during the 2016 gubernatorial election in Ondo State; and
iii. Determine the mechanisms that can be put in place to check the challenges affecting the use of smart card readers during elections in Nigeria.
i. The introduction of Smart Card Readers did not significantly reduce electoral malpractices during the 2016 gubernatorial election in Ondo State.
ii. The introduction of Smart Card Readers significantly reduced electoral malpractices during the 2016 gubernatorial election in Ondo State.
Although the study seeks to appraise card reader and its effects on electoral malpractices, the focus of the study is the 2016 gubernatorial election in Ondo State.
This research will add to the body of existing knowledge and literature on the role of smart card reader during elections in Nigeria and also educate the general public on the benefits and major challenges of the Smart Card Reader and other electoral technological innovations to enhance credibility of elections aimed at consolidating democracy in Nigeria.
Technology: According to Akaninwor (2008), it is a systematic application of manufacturing methods and industrial arts to enhance efficiency in human activities. He went further to say that technology can simply be described as the result of man’s effort to do things efficiently and effectively.
Election and General Election: Election is a critical component of any democratic society. Thus, it is the process of choosing candidates for public offices. This can be defined as a type of election conducted in the federation at large for federal and state elective positions (The Electoral Institute, 2015).
Smart Card Reader: This is an electronic device which is used to detect the authenticity of one’s voters’ card. In other words, Smart Card Reader is designed to read information contained in the embedded chip of the permanent voters’ card issued by INEC to verify the authenticity of the permanent voter’s card (PVC) and also matching the biometrics obtained from the voter on the spot with the ones stored on the PVC.
Ondo State: Ondo State is one of the thirty-six states in Nigeria, located in the South Western part of the country. It is the thirteenth most populated state after Kano State (National Population Commission, 2006).
The research work is divided into five chapters. Chapter One comprises the introduction vis-a-vis the background to the study, the statement of research problem, research questions, objectives, working assumptions among others. Chapter Two reviews relevant literature on the subject matter while Chapter Three contains the research methodology adopted for the study. Chapter Four presents, interprets and discusses findings of the study, Chapter Five summarizes, and concludes the study.
This chapter reviewed the relevant literature on the subject matter of this study and stated the theoretical framework adopted. The study aim is to bring out the gap in knowledge. It also gave an extensive examination of the various concepts of the study.
Technology is connected with obtaining certain result, resolving certain problems, completing certain tasks using particular skills, employing knowledge and exploiting assets (Lan and Young, 1996). The concept of technology does not only relate to the technology that embodies in the product but it is also associated with the knowledge or information of its use, application and the process in developing the product (Lovell, 1998; Bozeman, 2000).The early concept of technology as information holds that technology is generally applicable and easy to reproduce and re-use (Arrow, 1962). However, Reddy and Zhoa(1990) contend that the early concept of technology contradicts with a strand of literature on international technology transfer which holds that “technology is conceived as firm-specific information concerning the characteristics and performance properties of the production process and product design”. They further argue that the production process or operation technology is embodied in the equipment or the means to produce a defined product. On the other hand, the product design or product technology is that which is manifested in the finished product. Pavitt (1985) suggests that technology is mainly differentiated knowledge about specific application, tacit, often uncodified and largely cumulative within firms. Burgelman et al. (1996) refer to technology as the theoretical and practical knowledge, skills, and artefacts that can be used to develop products and services as well as their production and delivery system
Black and Harrison (1985) defined technology as a disciplined process that uses the resources of matter, energy and natural phenomena to achieve human purpose. It is the practical application of scientific results for the development of tools, equipment and techniques. According to him, scientific and
The smart card reader is an electronic device which is used to detain the authenticity of one’s permanent voter`s card. The smart card reader was the most highly contentious issue in the 2015 general elections in Nigeria. It was used for the first time in 2015 and remains one of the greatest innovative technologies in Nigeria’s electoral history. The smart card reader is a technological device set up to authenticate and verify the Permanent Voter Card (PVC) issued by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). The device uses a cryptographic technology that has ultra-low power consumption with a single core frequency of 1.2GHZ and Android 4.2.2. Operating System (INEC, 2015).
In other words, the INEC card reader is designed to read information contained in the embedded chip of the Permanent Voter's Card issued by INEC and also carry out a verification of the intending voter by matching the biometrics obtained from the voter on the spot with the ones stored on the PVC (Engineering Network Team, 2015).The ability of the card reader to perform the above functions, as well as keeping a tally of the total numbers of voters accredited at the polling unit and forwarding the information to a central database server over a Global System Module (GSM) network makes the card reader most welcome at this point in time in the nation's electoral history (Engineering Network Team,2015). However, Banire (2015) contended that the electronic voting machine and the card reader are two different devices that are not necessarily deployed together for all purposes. He explained that a card reader is not an electronic voting machine but a machine to be used for accreditation of voters only before the actual voting.
Smart card reader is a component of electronic voting also known as e-voting, it`s a system of voting using electronic means to either aid or take care of the chores of casting and counting votes (Buchsbaum, 2004). Depending on the particular implementation, e-voting may encompass a range of internet services, from basic data transmission to full-function online voting through common connectable household devices. Similarly, the degree of automation may vary from simple chores to a complete solution that includes voter registration & authentication, vote input, local or precinct tallying, vote data encryption and transmission to servers, vote consolidation and tabulation, and election administration (Buchsbaum, 2004). In general, two main types of e-voting can be identified: e-voting which is physically supervised by representatives of governmental or independent electoral authorities (e.g. electronic voting machines located at polling stations such as smart card readers); and remote e-voting via the internet (also called i-voting) where the voter votes at home or without going to a polling station (Zissis, 2011).
Historically, electronic voting systems for electorates have been in use since the 1960s when smart card systems debuted (Buchsbaum, 2004). Their first widespread use was in the USA where seven counties switched to this method for the 1964 presidential election. Afterwards, smart card readers which verifies voters and direct recording electronic voting machines which collect and tabulate votes in a single machine, are used by all voters in all elections in Brazil and India, and also on a large scale in Venezuela and the United States since 1990s (Buchsbaum, 2004). In 1996, after tests conducted on more than fifty (50) municipalities, the Brazilian Electoral Justice has launched their "voting machine". Since 2000, all Brazilian voters are able to use the electronic ballot boxes to choose their candidates. In 2010 presidential election, which had more than 135 million voters, the result was defined 75 minutes after the end of voting. The electronic ballot box is made up of two micro-terminals (one located in the voting cabin and the other with the voting board representative) which are connected by a 5-meter cable. Externally, the micro-terminals have only a numerical keyboard, which does not accept any command executed by the simultaneous pressure of more than one key. In case of power failure, the internal battery provides the energy or it can be connected to an automotive battery. The Brazilian electronic ballot box serves today as a model for other countries (Bocksler, 2010).
Also, in 2004, India adopted smart card readers for its elections to the Parliament with 380 million voters casting their ballots using more than one million voting machines (Chaum, et al., 2005). The Indian smart card readers are designed and developed by two Government Owned Defence Equipment Manufacturing Units, Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) and Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL). Both systems are identical, and are developed to the specifications of Election Commission of India. The System is a set of two devices running on 7.5 V batteries. One device, the Voting Unit is used by the Voter, and another device called the Control Unit is operated by the Electoral Officer. Both units are connected by a 5-metre cable. The Voting unit has a Blue Button for every candidate, the unit can hold 16 candidates, but up to 4 units can be chained, to accommodate 64 candidates. The Control Units has three buttons on the surface, namely, one button to verify a voter, one button to see the total number of vote cast, and one button to close the election process (Chaum, et al., 2005).
Past elections outcomes in Nigeria had witnessed desperate bid for political power by some stakeholders with vested interests in the Nigerian electoral process. Some of these stakeholders engaged in all forms of electoral malpractice, including multiple voting, impersonation, manipulation and falsification of results which had led to legal actions, electoral conflicts and violence. Electoral malpractices make the citizens to lose confidence in the electoral process; and lack of confidence by the citizenry in the democratic process is an impediment to the deepening of democracy process, if the citizenry does not have confidence in the fairness, accuracy, openness, and basic integrity of the election process, the very basis of any democratic society might be threatened (Alvarez and Hall, 2008).Electoral fraud according to López-Pintor (2010) has more serious political implications, in that it allows a party or candidate to take over public positions contrary to the popular will. This undermines the democratic process and usually leads to electoral violence, insecurity and political instability. The governments of Cote D`Ivoire, Peru, and Serbia fell in 2000 as a result of popular rebellions against their fraudulent elections. Similarly, the so called “Orange Revolution” in Ukraine in 2004 caused presidential elections to be completely re-scheduled following extensive fraud in its electoral process (López-Pintor, 2010).
In view of the negative impacts of electoral malpractices, global attention is now focusing on how to mitigate this undemocratic behaviour and improve the electoral process. One of such strategies to combat electoral malpractices is the introduction of information and communication technology into the electoral process. Though, the use of technology in elections is not an end in itself, but assists in the various aspects of electoral administration (ACE Project, n.d). It is against this background that an electronic technologically based device, the smart card reader was introduced into the Nigerian electoral process in 2015 to help improve and deepen electoral democracy. Among the fundamental basis for the deployment of the technologically-based device in the 2015 general elections by INEC was to prevent electoral fraud; allow the electorates votes to count; reduce litigations arising from elections; authenticate and verify voters; protect the integrity and credibility of the election; audit results from polling units across the federation; and ensure transparency and accountability. Others are to, do a range of statistical analysis of the demographics of voting for the purposes of research and planning; build public confidence and trust in the election; reduce electoral conflicts; ensure a free and fair election and deepen Nigeria’s electoral and democratic process.
In spite of the laudable goals and objectives of the smart card reader, it generated debate among the 2015 general elections stakeholders before, during and after the polls. On the one hand, proponents of the card reader have viewed the innovation as a deliberate effort in ensuring the conduct of a free and fair election while on the other hand there have been arguments that INEC neither has the legitimate authority nor capacity to use the card reader (Policy and Legal Advocacy Centre, 2015). The proponent of the device according to Peters (2015) believed that the card reader procedure has the capacity to prevent or minimize rigging in the sense that there would not be multiple voting while the opponents believed that in the peculiar circumstances of the Nigerian situation, the card reader is designed to assist a certain political party to win the general election. Peters (2015) maintained that the major plank of their argument is that the card reader must have been programmed to assist a pre-determined winner of the election by ensuring that so many persons would discriminately be disenfranchised to deny other parties of favourable votes, thereby ensuring the winning of an INEC preferred or pre-determined party. There is also the sentiment about the use of a faith based bank to transfer money for printing of permanent voters` card and the configuration of the card readers.
In spite of the assurances given by INEC to address contentious issues connected with the use of card readers after it’s test-run in twelve states of the federation, the 2015 general elections witnessed the inability of the device to properly deliver in a large number of polling units, especially during the Presidential and National Assembly Elections (Alebiosu, 2015). Therefore, what are the challenges the card reader was confronted with in its operation for the purpose of accreditation in the 2015 general elections? The level of awareness among the electorates about the card reader was poor. A large number of Nigerians, especially the electorates in rural communities are completely unaware of the device. Many of these categories of people have neither seen nor heard about the card reader until the Election Day. These categories of people have no information on the role of the card reader in the elections (Alebiosu, 2015). Also, there was a lot misconception about the device. To some of the electorates, the card reader was a voting device. This inadequate information dissemination and poor sensitization of the electorates on the card reader led to some poor human relations and uncooperative attitudes between some of the illiterate electorates and election officials (Onapajo, 2014). The training given to the ad hoc and INEC staff on the use of the card reader was inadequate. Majority of the Presiding Officers and Assistant Presiding Officers in the polling units were not effectively trained on the proper use and handling of the card reader. In most cases, the venues provided by INEC for their training were crowded and not conducive such that most of the trainees did not properly receive the instructions on the use of the card reader. There were imperfect practical demonstrations of how the card reader would properly be used, in some cases two card readers were provided for a class of hundred trainees (Suberu, 2007).
In addition, a large number of the trainees did not have the opportunity of operating the device. In some few cases, those that received training were replaced with those that have no proper idea of the effective use of the device. All of these led to the poor handling of the card reader during the elections to the extent that the protective film of some card readers were not removed thereby leading to the impossibility of the device to detect thumbprints in some cases (Alebiosu, 2015). Card reader breakdown was also witnessed during the elections. Some of the devices malfunctioned on the day of election. Though, INEC had provided back-up in case of any card reader breakdown however, some of the back-up failed to equally work. For instance, five card readers were deployed for use at the polling unit of the Presidential Candidate of the PDP in Bayelsa State yet none of them functioned. Similarly, the card reader at the polling unit of the Vice-Presidential Candidate of APC was non-functional (Makama & Muhammed, 2015). A number of the smart card readers were not smart to function effectively. A few of the card readers were unable to function due to blank screen, non-activation of the Subscriber Identification Module (SIM) card in the device and low battery. Some INEC officials according to Vanguard (2015) attributed the failure of the card readers to INEC engineers who could not decode the inbuilt security installation in the card reader. The security code in the card reader is reportedly designed to update the time and date of voting. One official claimed that the cards were initially programmed for February 14 but with the postponement to March 28, it made many of the machines to malfunctioned (Vanguard News, 2015). Wherein the card readers functioned, a few of the devices were confronted with the challenge of PVC authentication and biometric data verification of the voters in the polling units. The authentication and verification of voters was part of the accreditation process for the election. A number of the PVC issued to voters by INEC could not be authenticated, thereby disenfranchising some eligible voters in the elections. Wherein some voters cards were authenticated, their biometric data could not be verified after several trials; and where it is verified, it is slow in some cases especially the fingerprints (Alebiosu, 2015).
[...]
Der GRIN Verlag hat sich seit 1998 auf die Veröffentlichung akademischer eBooks und Bücher spezialisiert. Der GRIN Verlag steht damit als erstes Unternehmen für User Generated Quality Content. Die Verlagsseiten GRIN.com, Hausarbeiten.de und Diplomarbeiten24 bieten für Hochschullehrer, Absolventen und Studenten die ideale Plattform, wissenschaftliche Texte wie Hausarbeiten, Referate, Bachelorarbeiten, Masterarbeiten, Diplomarbeiten, Dissertationen und wissenschaftliche Aufsätze einem breiten Publikum zu präsentieren.
Kostenfreie Veröffentlichung: Hausarbeit, Bachelorarbeit, Diplomarbeit, Dissertation, Masterarbeit, Interpretation oder Referat jetzt veröffentlichen!
Kommentare